Physical Properties of Textile Fibres

J.W.S. Hearle, W. E. Morton1845692209, 9781845692209, 1420079581, 9781420079586

First published in 1962, and now in its fourth edition, Physical properties of textile fibres has become a classic, providing the standard reference on key aspects of fibre performance. The new edition has been substantially reorganised and revised to reflect new research. After introductory chapters on fibre structure, testing and sampling, the book reviews key fibre properties, their technical significance, factors affecting these properties and measurement issues. Each chapter covers both natural and synthetic fibres, including high-performance fibres. The book first reviews properties such as fineness, length and density. It then considers thermal properties and reaction to moisture. A further group of chapters then reviews tensile properties, thermo-mechanical responses, fibre breakage and fatigue. Finally, the book discusses dielectric properties, electrical resistance and static, optical properties and fibre friction. Written by one of the world’s leading authorities, the fourth edition of Physical properties of textile fibres consolidates its reputation as a standard work both for those working in the textile industry and those teaching and studying textile science.

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Table of contents :
Cover Page
……Page 1
Title Page
……Page 2
Physical properties of textile fibres, Fourth edition……Page 4
Contents……Page 6
Preface to the first edition……Page 12
Preface to the fourth edition……Page 13
Woodhead Publishing in Textiles……Page 15
1.1.1 The nature of matter……Page 20
1.1.2 Intermediate bonds: hydrogen bonding……Page 21
1.1.3 The nature of fibres……Page 22
1.2.1 Sources of evidence……Page 23
1.2.2 Absorption of infrared radiation and Raman scattering……Page 24
1.2.3 Optical and X-ray diffraction studies……Page 26
1.2.4 Electron microscopy and related techniques……Page 37
1.2.5 Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)……Page 39
1.3.1 Requirements for fibre formation from linear polymers……Page 40
1.3.2 Order and disorder in fibre structure……Page 41
1.3.3 A general view……Page 46
1.3.5 Limiting values of parameters……Page 50
1.4.1 Cellulose……Page 52
1.4.2 An integrated view of the fine structure of cotton……Page 55
1.4.3 The gross morphology of cotton……Page 58
1.4.4 Other natural cellulose fibres……Page 60
1.5.1 Manufactured cellulosic fibres……Page 62
1.5.2 The diverse forms of viscose rayon……Page 63
1.5.3 Cellulose acetate……Page 65
1.5.4 Alginate and other fibres……Page 66
1.6.1 Protein chemistry……Page 67
1.6.2 Silk……Page 70
1.6.3 Molecular form and assembly in wool (levels 2 to 6)……Page 71
1.6.5 Regenerated-protein fibres……Page 75
1.7.1 Chemical constitution……Page 76
1.7.2 The structure of polyamide fibres……Page 77
1.7.3 Polyester (PET) fibres……Page 81
1.7.4 Other polyesters……Page 83
1.7.7 Acrylic and related fibres……Page 84
1.7.9 Some gross features of synthetic-fibre structure……Page 86
1.8.2 Inorganic fibres……Page 87
1.8.3 Carbon fibres……Page 89
1.8.4 HM–HT polymer fibres……Page 91
1.9.1 Diverse functions……Page 94
1.9.3 Fibres with other properties……Page 95
1.10.2 Thermodynamic stability……Page 96
1.11 References……Page 97
Additional general references……Page 99
2.1.1 Evolution……Page 101
2.2.1 Quality control in manufactured fibres……Page 102
2.2.2 Natural fibres……Page 103
2.2.3 Sampling requirements……Page 104
2.3.1 Numerical proportions……Page 105
2.3.2 Length bias……Page 106
2.3.3 Frequencies, length proportions and mass proportions……Page 107
2.3.5 Extent bias……Page 108
2.4.1 Squaring and cut-squaring……Page 109
2.4.2 Dye-sampling……Page 111
2.5.1 The problem of heterogeneity……Page 112
2.5.2 Sampling from raw materials in a loose state……Page 113
2.6 References……Page 114
3.1 Fibre dimensions……Page 116
3.2.2 Transverse dimensions……Page 118
3.2.3 Solid fibres of circular cross-section……Page 120
3.2.5 Hollow fibres……Page 121
3.3.2 Torsional rigidity……Page 122
3.3.5 Fibre cohesion and twist……Page 123
3.4.1 Variation within and between fibre types……Page 124
3.4.2 Variation of fineness within a sample……Page 125
3.5.1 Conditioning the specimen……Page 126
3.5.3 Staple fibres……Page 127
3.6.1 Width and diameter……Page 128
3.6.2 Measurements on fibre sections……Page 129
3.7.1 Laser scanning and digital optical analysis……Page 130
3.7.2 Application to cotton testing……Page 132
3.8.2 Flow relations……Page 134
3.8.3 The Micronaire……Page 136
3.8.4 The WIRA Fibre Fineness Meter……Page 137
3.8.5 The Arealometer……Page 139
3.8.6 SDL Micromat……Page 140
3.9 The vibroscope method……Page 141
3.10.1 A variety of shapes……Page 142
3.10.2 Cotton maturity……Page 143
3.10.4 Micronaire, fineness and maturity……Page 144
3.10.5 Maturity counts……Page 145
3.10.6 Interference colours in polarised light……Page 146
Differential compression……Page 147
The Causticaire test……Page 148
The differential-dyeing test……Page 149
3.11 References……Page 150
4.1 Fibre lengths……Page 153
4.2 Technical significance of fibre length……Page 155
4.3.1 Frequency diagrams……Page 156
4.3.2 Survivor diagrams……Page 158
4.3.3 Distribution for length-biased samples……Page 159
4.3.4 Beard diagrams……Page 160
4.3.5 Distributions by mass……Page 161
4.3.6 Measures of fibre length……Page 162
4.4.2 Cotton staple length……Page 163
4.5 Crimp……Page 165
4.6.2 Oiled plate method……Page 166
4.6.3 Semi-automatic single-fibre testers……Page 167
4.7.2 Comb sorters……Page 168
4.8 The Balls sledge sorter……Page 171
4.9.1 Method 1 (Chandler)……Page 172
4.9.2 Method 2 (Ahmed and Nanjundaya)……Page 173
4.9.4 Method 4……Page 174
4.10.2 Thickness scanning……Page 175
4.10.3 Capacitance scanning……Page 176
4.10.4 Photo-electric scanning……Page 177
4.11.2 Digital imaging……Page 180
4.12 References……Page 181
5.2 Measurement……Page 182
5.4 Density and order……Page 184
5.5 References……Page 186
6.2.1 Specific heat of fibres……Page 187
6.2.2 Thermal conductivity……Page 192
6.2.3 Thermal expansion and contraction……Page 194
6.3 References……Page 195
7.2.1 Humidity……Page 197
7.2.3 Regain and moisture content……Page 198
7.3.2 Difficulties involved in drying the specimen……Page 199
7.3.3 Experimental practice……Page 200
7.3.5 Indirect methods……Page 202
7.4.1 General……Page 203
7.4.2 Comparison of various materials……Page 205
7.4.3 Influence of temperature……Page 209
7.4.4 Effect of stresses……Page 211
7.5 References……Page 212
8.1 Definitions……Page 214
8.2 Measurement……Page 215
8.3 Results……Page 217
8.5 References……Page 220
9.2.1 The diffusion equation and its solution……Page 221
9.2.2 Diffusion coefficients of fibre materials……Page 225
9.2.3 Penetration into a dry fibre……Page 227
9.2.4 Conditioning of a mass of fibres……Page 229
9.2.5 Comparison with experimental results……Page 230
9.3.1 The conditioning process……Page 231
9.3.2 Penetration of a change into a mass of fibres……Page 234
9.3.3 Experimental confirmation of a computational model……Page 238
9.3.4 Changes under forced draught……Page 239
9.4.1 Conditioning……Page 242
9.5 References……Page 247
10.2.2 Theoretical estimate of water retention……Page 248
10.2.3 Experimental results……Page 250
10.3.2 Relation between suction, capillary size and humidity……Page 251
10.3.3 Experimental results……Page 252
10.4 Interactions……Page 254
10.5 References……Page 255
11.1.2 Definitions……Page 256
11.2.1 Volume swelling……Page 257
11.2.3 Transverse swelling……Page 258
11.3.1 The swelling of fibres in water……Page 259
11.4 References……Page 261
12.1.2 The effect of hydrophilic groups……Page 262
12.1.3 Directly and indirectly attached water……Page 263
12.1.4 Absorption in crystalline and non-crystalline regions……Page 264
12.1.5 Hysteresis: a molecular explanation……Page 265
12.1.7 Capillary water……Page 267
12.2.1 Mechanistic molecular theories……Page 270
12.2.2 Multilayer adsorption: the Brunauer, Emmett and Teller (BET) equation……Page 274
12.2.3 Solution theories……Page 277
12.2.4 Hailwood and Horrobin’s theory……Page 278
12.3.1 Swelling and osmosis……Page 280
12.3.2 Qualitative view of influence of mechanical forces on absorption……Page 281
12.3.3 Internal restraints; plasticity and hysteresis……Page 282
12.3.4 Thermodynamic relations……Page 283
12.3.5 Cassie’s reduced regain–relative humidity curve……Page 288
12.4 Surface adsorption……Page 289
12.5 The effect of temperature……Page 290
12.6 References……Page 291
13.2.1 The material and its condition……Page 293
13.2.3 The nature and timing of the test……Page 294
13.3.1 Load–elongation and stress–strain curves……Page 295
13.3.4 Work of rupture……Page 297
13.3.5 Comparison of methods of specifying breakage……Page 298
13.3.6 Initial modulus and other moduli……Page 299
13.3.7 Work factor……Page 300
13.3.8 Yield point……Page 301
13.4.1 General……Page 302
13.4.2 Instron-type tests……Page 304
13.4.3 Other testers……Page 305
13.4.5 Other experimental features……Page 307
13.5.1 General……Page 308
13.5.2 Cotton and the other natural cellulose fibres……Page 311
13.5.3 Regenerated cellulose and related fibres……Page 316
13.5.4 Protein fibres……Page 318
13.5.5 Synthetic fibres……Page 320
13.5.6 High-performance fibres……Page 325
13.6.1 Variability and time dependence……Page 328
13.6.2 Effect of moisture and temperature……Page 330
13.6.3 Effect of light……Page 336
13.6.4 Effect of chemical environment……Page 337
13.7 References……Page 338
14.2.1 The weak-link effect……Page 341
14.2.2 Peirce’s theory [3]……Page 344
14.2.3 Other treatments……Page 346
14.3.1 Variation of stress and strain……Page 349
14.3.2 Tensile modulus……Page 350
14.4.1 Theoretical……Page 351
14.6 Changes in specimen during test……Page 354
14.7 References……Page 356
15.1 Introduction……Page 357
15.2 Definitions……Page 358
15.3 Experimental methods……Page 359
15.4.1 Comparative values……Page 360
15.4.2 Influence of test conditions on recovery……Page 364
15.5 Change of properties as a result of straining: mechanical conditioning……Page 365
15.6 Swelling recovery……Page 367
15.7.1 Idealised fibre stress–strain relations……Page 368
15.7.2 Recovery, work of rupture and durability……Page 369
15.7.3 A simple model of cyclic testing……Page 370
15.7.4 Experimental behaviour in cyclic testing……Page 373
15.8 References……Page 375
16.1 The study of time dependence……Page 376
16.2.1 Primary and secondary creep……Page 377
16.2.2 Leaderman’s experiments on primary creep……Page 379
16.2.3 Generalised creep curves……Page 383
16.2.4 Influence of various factors on creep……Page 385
16.2.5 A cumulative-extension test……Page 386
16.2.6 Comparative creep behaviour……Page 387
16.2.7 Creep of high-modulus polyethylene (HMPE) fibres……Page 388
16.3 Stress relaxation……Page 389
16.4.1 High-speed tests……Page 395
16.4.2 Temperature and time: isothermal and adiabatic changes……Page 399
16.4.3 Influence of rate of loading on breakage……Page 401
16.4.4 Stress–strain curves……Page 404
16.5.2 Characterisation of viscoelastic behaviour……Page 409
Representation (1):……Page 410
Representation (3): Voight model……Page 411
Representation (5)……Page 413
Representation (6)……Page 414
Summary of representations……Page 415
Direct observation of stress–strain loop……Page 416
Free vibrations……Page 417
Forced resonant vibrations……Page 418
Velocity of sound: continuous transmission……Page 420
Pulse-velocity methods……Page 422
16.5.5 Values of dynamic modulus……Page 423
16.5.6 Transitions in dynamic moduli……Page 428
16.5.7 Strain-wave propagation: limiting impact velocity……Page 429
16.6 References……Page 430
17.2.1 Flexural rigidity for small curvature……Page 433
17.2.2 Non-linearity at large curvatures……Page 436
17.2.3 Measurement of bending……Page 437
17.2.4 Experimental results……Page 439
17.2.5 Bending stress–strain relations……Page 442
17.2.6 Loop strength and knot strength……Page 444
17.2.7 Compression and bending in high-performance fibres……Page 445
17.3.1 Torsional rigidity……Page 449
17.3.2 Experimental methods……Page 451
17.3.3 Results of torsional experiments……Page 455
17.3.4 Torsion and time……Page 457
17.3.5 Breaking twist……Page 458
17.4 Shear strength……Page 459
17.5.1 Elastic constants……Page 460
17.5.2 Measured properties……Page 463
17.5.3 Transverse compression……Page 467
17.5.4 Interactions of stresses……Page 471
17.7 References……Page 474
18.1.1 Changes of state in polymers……Page 477
18.1.2 The nature of transitions……Page 478
18.1.3 Observation of transitions……Page 479
18.2.1 Characteristic features……Page 481
18.2.2 Multiple melting phenomena……Page 484
18.3.1 Dynamic moduli……Page 488
18.3.2 Observed behaviour……Page 490
18.3.3 A comparison of temperature effects……Page 494
18.4 Transitions in keratin fibres……Page 497
18.5.1 Thermomechanical analysis……Page 502
18.5.3 Irreversible shrinkage……Page 504
18.5.4 Other property changes……Page 508
18.6.1 Technical importance and characteristic features……Page 509
18.6.2 Heat setting of polyester and nylon……Page 511
18.6.3 Overtwisting……Page 514
18.6.4 Phenomenological treatment of heat setting……Page 517
18.6.5 Setting mechanisms……Page 520
18.7 References……Page 525
19.2.1 Tensile failures of manufactured fibres……Page 528
19.2.2 Tensile failures of natural fibres……Page 534
19.2.3 Twist, lateral cohesion and compression……Page 536
19.2.4 Fracture mechanics……Page 539
19.3 Tensile fatigue……Page 544
19.4 Torsional fatigue……Page 548
19.5.1 Test method……Page 549
19.5.2 Modes of failure……Page 550
19.5.3 Flex fatigue lifetimes……Page 552
19.5.4 Mechanics of the flex test……Page 554
19.5.5 Reduction in tensile strength after flex cycling……Page 557
19.6.1 Test methods……Page 559
19.6.2 The form of failure……Page 560
19.6.3 Statistics of fatigue failure……Page 563
19.6.5 Environmental influences……Page 564
19.6.7 Mechanics of biaxial rotation……Page 567
19.7 Surface wear and peeling……Page 572
19.8 Abrasion and wear……Page 573
19.9 References……Page 576
20.1.2 Basic theory……Page 578
20.2.1 The extension and recovery of ordinary rayon……Page 583
20.2.2 A comparison of regenerated cellulose fibres……Page 586
20.2.3 The effect of orientation……Page 588
20.2.4 Ultimate failure……Page 589
20.2.6 Creasing……Page 592
20.3.1 Molecular responses and fine structure……Page 593
20.3.2 A network model……Page 595
20.4.1 Simplistic theory of tensile deformation of HM–HT fibres……Page 599
20.4.2 Deviations from the simplistic theory……Page 602
20.4.3 Strength……Page 605
20.5 A general theory of orientation……Page 607
20.6.1 Cotton and other plant fibres……Page 611
20.6.2 Wool and hair fibres……Page 616
20.7.1 Ideal springs and dashpots……Page 623
20.7.2 Eyring’s three element model: reaction-rate theory……Page 625
20.7.3 Stress relaxation on Eyring’s model……Page 628
20.7.4 Creep on Eyring’s model……Page 629
20.7.5 Stress–strain curve on Eyring’s model……Page 630
20.7.6 A generalisation of Eyring’s model……Page 631
20.7.7 The superposition principle in primary creep……Page 632
20.7.8. An integral theory……Page 636
20.8.1 Thermodynamic equation of deformation……Page 637
20.8.2 Application to fibres……Page 638
20.9 References……Page 641
21.2 Definitions of dielectric properties……Page 644
21.3.1 Experimental methods……Page 647
21.3.2 Evaluation of results for an air-fibre mixture……Page 648
21.4.1 General……Page 650
21.4.2 Fibres……Page 651
21.5 The effect of moisture……Page 653
21.6 The effect of temperature……Page 654
21.7 The effect of other factors……Page 657
21.8 Summary of results for various materials……Page 659
21.9 References……Page 661
22.2 Definitions……Page 662
22.3.1 Measurement of resistance……Page 663
22.4.1 The influence of moisture……Page 664
22.4.2 Comparison of different materials……Page 665
22.4.3 Effect of impurities……Page 667
22.4.4 Effect of temperature……Page 669
22.4.5 Arrangement of specimen……Page 670
22.4.6 Polarisation and related effects……Page 671
22.4.7 Electrolytic effects……Page 674
22.5.1 Nature of the conduction……Page 676
22.5.2 Influence of permittivity on dissociation of ion pairs……Page 678
22.5.3 Conduction at high moisture contents……Page 681
22.5.4 An alternative theory……Page 682
22.6 References……Page 683
23.1 Introduction……Page 684
23.2 Measurement of static……Page 686
23.3.1 Formation of charge……Page 688
23.3.2 Magnitude of charge……Page 689
23.3.3 Anti-static treatments……Page 694
23.4 Generation of charge……Page 695
23.5.1 Leakage in air……Page 698
23.5.2 Leakage in the material……Page 701
23.5.3 An alternative leakage equation……Page 704
23.5.4 The action of a surface coating……Page 705
23.6 References……Page 708
24.2.1 Refractive index and birefringence……Page 709
24.2.2 Measurement of refractive indices……Page 712
24.2.3 Measurements of birefringence……Page 715
24.2.4 Refractive index, density and swelling……Page 716
24.2.5 Birefringence and orientation……Page 718
24.2.6 Comparative values……Page 719
24.3 Absorption and dichroism……Page 723
24.4 Reflection and lustre……Page 724
24.5 References……Page 726
25.1.1 Historical development……Page 728
25.2.1 Methods for fundamental studies……Page 729
25.2.2 Rapid methods……Page 731
25.3.1 Friction, load and area of contact……Page 735
25.3.2 Static and kinetic friction: speed of sliding……Page 737
25.3.3 The state of the surface……Page 739
25.3.5 Typical values of µ = F/ N……Page 741
25.3.6 Surface damage on rubbed fibres……Page 743
25.4.1 General theory……Page 745
25.4.2 Application to fibres……Page 748
25.4.3 Lubricated conditions……Page 750
25.5.1 Experimental……Page 751
25.5.2 Theory of the directional frictional effect……Page 753
25.6 References……Page 755
AI.3 Stress and specific stress……Page 757
AII.2 Regenerated fibres……Page 759
AII.4 High-modulus, high-tenacity (HM–HT) linear polymer fibres……Page 760
AII.7 Reference……Page 761
Appendix III: Standard test methods……Page 762