Handbook of Building Materials for Fire Protection

HARPER0071388915, 9780071388917

Table of contents :
Copyright……Page 5
CONTENTS……Page 7
CONTRIBUTORS……Page 13
PREFACE……Page 15
1.0 INTRODUCTION……Page 17
1.1 FUNDAMENTALS OF COMBUSTION……Page 18
1.1.1 Stoichiometry……Page 19
1.1.2 Thermochemistry……Page 23
1.1.3 Flame Temperatures……Page 28
1.2.1 Flammability Limits for Gases and Vapors……Page 32
1.2.2 Ignition Energy……Page 35
1.3 LIQUIDS……Page 36
1.3.1 Fire Point……Page 37
1.3.2 Vapor Pressure……Page 38
1.3.4 Liquid Mixtures……Page 39
1.3.5 Burning Rate……Page 40
1.4 SOLIDS……Page 42
1.4.1 Flaming Ignition of Solid Materials……Page 45
1.4.2 Critical Heat Flux and Effective Ignition Temperature……Page 51
1.4.3 Pyrolysis and Burning Rates……Page 53
1.4.4 Flame Spread……Page 54
1.4.5 Self-Heating and Smoldering Combustion……Page 57
1.5 SMOKE PRODUCTION……Page 58
1.5.1 Vision Obscuration……Page 59
1.5.2 Toxicity of Combustion Products……Page 61
1.6 ENCLOSURE EFFECTS……Page 62
REFERENCES……Page 64
2.1 INTRODUCTION……Page 67
2.2 MATERIALS CHARACTERISTICS……Page 69
2.3 SOFTENING AND MELTING BEHAVIORS OF MATERIALS……Page 70
2.4 VAPORIZATION, DECOMPOSITION, AND CHARRING BEHAVIORS OF MATERIALS……Page 71
2.5 IGNITION BEHAVIOR OF MATERIALS……Page 74
2.6 FLAME SPREAD, FIRE GROWTH, AND BURNING BEHAVIOR OF MATERIALS……Page 79
2.7 POPULAR STANDARD TEST METHODS FOR THE BURNING BEHAVIOR OF MATERIALS……Page 81
2.7.2 ASTM E 136 and ISO 1182: Standard Test Method for Behavior of Materials in a Vertical Tube Furnace at 750 °C [13,14]……Page 82
2.7.3 ASTM E 906, ASTM E 2058, and ASTM E 1354 and ISO 5660: Standard Test Methods for Release Rates of Material Vapors, Heat……Page 83
2.7.4 ASTM E 119: Standard Test Methods for Fire Tests of Building Construction and Materials—The Fire Endurance Test [14]……Page 90
2.7.5 ASTM E 1529: Standard Test Methods for Determining Effects of Large Hydrocarbon Pool Fires †on Structural Members……Page 91
2.8.1 prEN ISO and FDIS 11925-2: Reaction to Fire Tests for Building Products—Part 2: Ignitability when Subjected to Direct……Page 92
2.8.2 UL 94: Standard Test Methodology for Flammability of Plastic Materials for Parts in Devices and Appliances [12]……Page 93
2.8.3 ASTM D 2863 (ISO 4589): Test Methodology for Limited Oxygen Index [14]……Page 94
2.8.4 ASTM E 162 (D 3675): Standard Test Method for Surface Flammability Using a Radiant Energy Source [14]……Page 96
2.8.5 ASTM E 1321 (ISO 5658): Standard Test Method for Determining Material Ignition and Flame Spread Properties (LIFT) [13,1……Page 98
2.8.6 ASTM E 648 (ISO 9239-1): Standard Test Method for Critical Radiant Flux of Floor-Covering Systems Using a Radiant Heat……Page 100
2.8.7 ASTM E 84: Standard Test Method for Surface Burning Characteristics of Building Materials [14]……Page 102
2.8.8 FM Global Approval Class 4910 [11] (NFPA 318 [55]): Standard Test Methods for Clean Room Materials……Page 104
2.8.9 ASTM E 603: Standard Guide for Room Fire Experiments [14]……Page 105
NOMENCLATURE……Page 115
REFERENCES……Page 117
3.2.1 Monomers, Polymers, and Copolymers……Page 121
3.2.2 Polymer Architectures……Page 123
3.2.3 Commercial Materials……Page 127
3.2.4 Thermodynamic Quantities……Page 128
3.3.1 The Fire Triangle……Page 135
3.3.2 Chemical Changes during Burning……Page 136
3.4.1 Ignition……Page 148
3.4.2 Steady Burning……Page 154
3.4.3 Unsteady Burning……Page 160
DEFINITION OF TERMS……Page 164
REFERENCES……Page 166
4.1 INTRODUCTION……Page 173
4.2 OVERVIEW OF THE FLAME RETARDANTS INDUSTRY……Page 174
4.3 MECHANISMS OF FLAME RETARDANCY……Page 177
4.4.1 Hydrated Minerals……Page 179
4.4.2 Halogenated Materials……Page 181
4.4.3 Antimony Trioxide……Page 193
4.4.4 Phosphorus Additives……Page 195
4.5 POLYMER FAMILIES—SELECTION OF FLAME RETARDANT……Page 208
4.5.1 Polypropylene……Page 210
4.5.3 Styrenics……Page 216
4.5.4 ABS……Page 220
4.5.5 Polycarbonate……Page 221
4.5.6 PC/ABS Blends……Page 222
4.5.7 Nylon……Page 230
4.5.8 Thermoplastic Polyesters……Page 238
4.5.9 Polyvinyl Chloride……Page 241
4.5.10 Thermosets……Page 244
4.5.11 Elastomers/Rubber……Page 245
4.6.1 Layered Silicates……Page 248
4.6.3 Preparation Methods……Page 249
4.6.4 Flame-Retardant Properties of Nanocomposites……Page 250
4.6.5 Mechanism of Flame Retardancy in Nanocomposites……Page 252
REFERENCES……Page 256
5.2.2 Forms of Fibers Available……Page 261
5.2.4 Flammability Characteristics……Page 262
5.2.5 Flame Retardants……Page 265
5.4.1 Characteristics of Burning Fabrics……Page 267
5.4.2 Thermal Performance Tests for Fabrics……Page 268
5.4.3 Performance Standards……Page 279
5.5 APPLICATIONS—PROTECTIVE CLOTHING……Page 283
5.5.1 Burn Injuries……Page 284
5.5.2 Flash Fires……Page 285
5.5.3 Structural and Wildlands Fires……Page 286
5.5.4 Electric Arcs……Page 292
5.5.5 Molten Metals……Page 295
5.6 APPLICATIONS—FURNISHINGS……Page 296
5.6.1 Structures……Page 297
5.6.2 Transportation……Page 305
5.7 CHALLENGES FOR THE FUTURE……Page 307
REFERENCES……Page 308
APPENDIX……Page 311
6.1.2 Construction Materials……Page 313
6.2.1 Historical Fire Events……Page 314
6.2.2 Early Fire Resistance Test Procedures……Page 315
6.2.3 Standard Fire Resistance Tests……Page 316
6.2.5 Failure Criteria……Page 319
6.2.6 Special Hazard Resistance Tests (“High-Rise” Curves)……Page 322
6.3.1 Reaction of Structural Materials to Fire……Page 323
6.4 PROTECTION OF STRUCTURAL MATERIALS FROM FIRE……Page 334
6.4.1 Fire-Resistive Materials……Page 335
6.4.2 Fire-Resistive Systems……Page 340
6.5.1 Steel Construction……Page 344
6.5.3 Penetrations and Joints……Page 354
6.6 DETERMINATION OF FIRE RESISTANCE BY CALCULATION……Page 355
6.6.1 Steel Construction……Page 356
6.6.2 Concrete Construction……Page 372
REFERENCES……Page 373
7.2.2 Forestry……Page 375
7.3.1 Sawn Timber……Page 376
7.3.2 Panel Products……Page 377
7.3.3 Engineered Wood Products……Page 378
7.3.4 Other Materials……Page 379
7.4.2 Physical Structure……Page 380
7.4.4 Chemical Composition……Page 381
7.4.5 Thermal Decomposition and Pyrolysis……Page 382
7.4.6 Fire-Retardant Treatments……Page 383
7.5.1 Wood and Char……Page 384
7.5.2 Other Materials……Page 397
7.6.1 Properties at Normal Temperatures……Page 398
7.6.2 Properties at Elevated Temperatures……Page 399
7.7.1 Ignition……Page 401
7.7.2 Heat Release and Charring Rate……Page 403
7.7.3 Products of Combustion……Page 409
7.7.4 Surface Flame Spread……Page 410
7.8.1 Exposed Wood Members……Page 414
7.8.2 Protected Wood-Frame Construction……Page 422
REFERENCES……Page 426
8.1 INTRODUCTION……Page 433
8.1.1 Accidents Involving Fluids Stored in Warehouses……Page 434
8.1.2 Accidents Involving Release of Fluids Contained in Vessels, Tanks, and Pipes……Page 436
8.3 VAPORIZATION AND BOILING CHARACTERISTICS OF FLUIDS……Page 437
8.4 IGNITION CHARACTERISTICS OF FLUIDS……Page 442
8.4.1 Flash Points of Fluids……Page 443
8.4.2 Autoignition Temperature of Fluids……Page 444
8.4.3 Hazard Classfication of Fluids Based on Ignition Resistance……Page 445
8.5 FLAMMABILITY CHARACTERISTICS OF FLUIDS……Page 448
8.6 COMBUSTION CHARACTERISTICS OF FLUIDS……Page 450
8.6.1 Release Rate of Fluid Vapors in Pool Fires……Page 452
8.6.2 Heat Release Rate……Page 456
8.6.3 Release Rates of Products……Page 467
8.7 SMOKE POINT……Page 469
NOMENCLATURE……Page 470
REFERENCES……Page 472
9.1 INTRODUCTION……Page 477
9.2 COMPOSITES IN MILITARY APPLICATIONS……Page 478
9.3 POLYMER COMPOSITES……Page 482
9.3.1 Conventional and Advanced Matrix Resins……Page 483
9.3.2 Fabrication Techniques……Page 485
9.3.3 Cost of Composite Systems……Page 486
9.4 FIRE THREAT……Page 487
9.5 POLYMER COMPOSITES AND FIRE……Page 488
9.6 FIRE REQUIREMENTS AND REGULATIONS FOR POLYMER COMPOSITES……Page 489
9.6.1 Infrastructure and Fire Regulations……Page 492
9.6.3 Air Transportation and Fire Regulations……Page 495
9.6.4 Commercial Marine Transportation and Fire Regulations……Page 496
9.7 FIRE PERFORMANCE AND TEST METHODS FOR COMPOSITES……Page 497
9.7.2 Smoke and Combustion Gas Generation……Page 498
9.7.3 Fire Growth……Page 500
9.7.4 Fire Resistance……Page 513
9.7.5 Structural Integrity Under Fire……Page 527
9.7.6 Passive Fire Protection……Page 536
REFERENCES……Page 552
INDEX……Page 557