Gaseous Electronics: Theory and Practice

Gorur Govinda Raju0849337631, 9780849337635, 9780203025260

The research on gaseous electronics reaches back more than 100 years. With the growing importance of gas lasers in so many research and industrial applications as well as power systems generating, transmitting, and distributing huge blocks of electrical power, the body of literature on cross sections, drift and diffusion, and ionization phenomena continues to bloom. Searching through this vast expanse of data is a daunting and time-consuming task. With this in mind, eminent researcher Gorur Govinda Raju presents an authoritative survey of the ballooning literature on gaseous electrical discharge.
Gaseous Electronics: Theory and Practice begins with an overview of the physics underlying the collisions involved in discharge, scattering, ion mobilities, and the various cross-sections and relations between them. A discussion follows on experimental techniques used to measure collision cross-sections, covering the techniques related to the data presented in later chapters. In an unprecedented collection of data and analysis, the author supplies comprehensive cross-sections for rare gases such as Argon, Helium, Krypton, and Xenon; various diatomics; and complex molecules and industrial gases including hydrocarbons. He further includes discussions and analyses on drift and diffusion of electrons, ionization coefficients, attachment coefficients, high-voltage phenomena, and high-frequency discharges.
Based on more than 40 years of experience in the field, Gaseous Electronics: Theory and Practice places a comprehensive collection of data together with theory and modern practice in a single, concise reference.

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Table of contents :
Front cover……Page 1
Preface……Page 12
About the Author……Page 18
Acknowledgments……Page 20
Contents……Page 22
1.1.1 LABORATORY COORDINATES……Page 30
1.1.2 CENTER OF MASS COORDINATES……Page 32
1.2 MEANING OF VELOCITY SPACE……Page 34
1.3 MAXWELL’S DISTRIBUTION FUNCTION……Page 37
1.4 MEAN FREE PATH……Page 39
1.5 PARTICLE COLLISIONS……Page 40
1.5.1 ELASTIC COLLISIONS……Page 41
1.5.2 ENERGY TRANSFER IN ELASTIC COLLISIONS……Page 44
1.5.3 DIFFERENTIAL SCATTERING CROSS SECTION……Page 46
1.5.4 MOMENTUM TRANSFER CROSS SECTION……Page 49
1.5.5 DIFFUSION COEFFICIENT……Page 50
1.5.7 INELASTIC COLLISIONS……Page 52
1.5.8 COLLISION FREQUENCY……Page 54
1.5.9 RATE COEFFICIENTS AND CONSTANTS……Page 59
1.5.10 ION MOBILITY……Page 63
1.6 POTENTIAL FUNCTIONS FOR PARTICLE INTERACTIONS……Page 68
1.7 QUANTUM MECHANICAL APPROACH TO SCATTERING……Page 72
REFERENCES……Page 81
2.1 TOTAL COLLISION CROSS SECTIONS……Page 84
2.1.1 RAMSAUER TECHNIQUE……Page 85
2.1.2 MODIFIED RAMSAUER’S TECHNIQUE……Page 87
2.1.3 LINEAR TRANSMISSION METHOD……Page 89
2.1.4 TIME-OF-FLIGHT METHOD……Page 90
2.1.5 PHOTOELECTRON SPECTROSCOPY……Page 94
2.2 DIFFERENTIAL CROSS SECTIONS……Page 95
2.2.2 CROSSED BEAMS TECHNIQUE……Page 96
2.3.1 IONIZATION TUBE METHOD……Page 99
2.3.3 CROSSED BEAMS METHODS……Page 101
2.3.4 PULSED CROSSED BEAM TECHNIQUE……Page 104
2.4 TOTAL EXCITATION CROSS SECTION……Page 105
2.4.1 RESONANCE NEAR EXCITATION ONSET……Page 108
2.4.3 SWARM METHOD FOR RO-VIBRATIONAL EXCITATION……Page 110
2.5 ATTACHMENT CROSS SECTION……Page 113
2.6 CONCLUDING REMARKS……Page 117
REFERENCES……Page 118
3.1 ARGON……Page 122
3.1.1 TOTAL AND MOMENTUM TRANSFER CROSS SECTIONS IN Ar (20· e· 1000 eV)……Page 125
3.1.2 TOTAL CROSS SECTIONS IN Ar (0_ e· 20 eV)……Page 128
3.1.3 ELASTIC AND DIFFERENTIAL CROSS SECTIONS IN Ar……Page 129
3.1.4 TOTAL EXCITATION CROSS SECTIONS IN Ar……Page 132
3.1.5 IONIZATION CROSS SECTIONS IN Ar……Page 137
3.1.6 VERIFICATION OF THE SIGMA RULE Ar……Page 143
3.2 HELIUM……Page 145
3.2.1 TOTAL AND MOMENTUM TRANSFER CROSS SECTIONS IN He……Page 146
3.2.2 ELASTIC AND DIFFERENTIAL CROSS SECTIONS IN He……Page 149
3.2.3 TOTAL EXCITATION CROSS SECTIONS IN He……Page 152
3.2.4 IONIZATION CROSS SECTIONS IN He……Page 156
3.2.5 VERIFICATION OF THE SIGMA RULE FOR He……Page 159
3.3 KRYPTON……Page 160
3.3.1 TOTAL CROSS SECTIONS iN Kr……Page 161
3.3.2 MODIFIED EFFECTIVE RANGE THEORY (MERT)……Page 162
3.3.3 MOMENTUM TRANSFER CROSS SECTIONS IN Kr……Page 169
3.3.4 ELASTIC AND DIFFERENTIAL CROSS SECTIONS IN Kr……Page 171
3.3.5 TOTAL EXCITATION CROSS SECTIONS IN Kr……Page 174
3.3.6 IONIZATION CROSS SECTIONS IN Kr……Page 177
3.4 NEON……Page 180
3.4.1 TOTAL CROSS SECTIONS IN Ne……Page 181
3.4.2 MOMENTUM TRANSFER CROSS SECTIONS IN Ne……Page 184
3.4.3 ELASTIC AND DIFFERENTIAL CROSS SECTIONS IN Ne……Page 186
3.4.4 TOTAL EXCITATION CROSS SECTIONS IN Ne……Page 190
3.4.5 IONIZATION CROSS SECTIONS IN Ne……Page 194
3.4.6 VERIFICATION OF THE SIGMA RULE FOR Ne……Page 198
3.5 XENON……Page 199
3.5.1 TOTAL CROSS SECTIONS IN Xe……Page 200
3.5.2 MOMENTUM TRANSFER CROSS SECTIONS IN Xe……Page 201
3.5.4 TOTAL EXCITATION CROSS SECTIONS IN Xe……Page 205
3.5.5 IONIZATION CROSS SECTIONS IN Xe……Page 210
3.5.6 VERIFICATION OF THE SIGMA RULE FOR Xe……Page 212
3.6 CONCLUDING REMARKS……Page 214
Helium……Page 215
Krypton……Page 218
Xenon……Page 219
4.1 CARBON MONOXIDE (CO)……Page 222
4.1.1 TOTAL CROSS SECTIONS IN CO……Page 224
4.1.2 MOMENTUM TRANSVFER CROSS SECTIONS IN CO……Page 227
4.1.4 ROTATIONAL AND VIBRATIONAL CROSS SECTIONS IN CO……Page 228
4.1.5 ELECTRONIC EXCITATION CROSS SECTIONS IN CO……Page 232
4.1.6 IONIZATION CROSS SECTIONS IN CO……Page 237
4.2 MOLECULAR HYDROGEN (H2)……Page 240
4.2.1 TOTAL CROSS SECTIONS IN H2……Page 241
4.2.3 MOMENTUM TRANSFER CROSS SECTIONS IN H2……Page 245
4.2.4 RO-VIBRATIONAL CROSS SECTIONS IN H2……Page 247
4.2.5 ELECTRONIC EXCITATION CROSS SECTIONS IN H2……Page 250
4.2.6 IONIZATION CROSS SECTIONS IN H2……Page 251
4.2.7 SIGMA RULE FOR H2……Page 253
4.3 MOLECULAR NITROGEN……Page 254
4.3.1 TOTAL CROSS SECTIONS IN N2……Page 255
4.3.2 MOMENTUM TRANSFER CROSS SECTIONS IN N2……Page 258
4.3.4 RO-VIBRATIONAL EXCITATION IN N2……Page 259
4.3.5 ELECTRONIC EXCITATION CROSS SECTIONS IN N2……Page 261
4.3.6 IONIZATION CROSS SECTIONS IN N2……Page 265
4.3.7 SIGMA RULE FOR N2……Page 266
4.4.1 TOTAL SCATTERING CROSS SECTIONS IN O2……Page 267
4.4.2 MOMENTUM TRANSFER CROSS SECTIONS IN O2……Page 269
4.4.3 ELASTIC SCATTERING CROSS SECTIONS IN O2……Page 270
4.4.4 RO-VIBRATIONAL EXCITATION CROSS SECTIONS IN O2……Page 272
4.4.5 ELECTRONIC EXCITATION CROSS SECTIONS IN O2……Page 274
4.4.6 DISSOCIATION CROSS SECTIONS IN O2……Page 275
4.4.7 IONIZATION CROSS SECTIONS IN O2……Page 278
4.5 NITRIC OXIDE (NO)……Page 279
4.5.1 TOTAL SCATTERING CROSS SECTIONS (NO)……Page 280
4.5.3 ELECTRONIC EXCITATION CROSS SECTIONS IN NO……Page 282
4.5.4 IONIZATION CROSS SECTIONS IN NO……Page 283
4.6 CLOSING REMARKS……Page 285
Carbon Monoxide……Page 288
Molecular Hydrogen……Page 290
Molecular Nitrogen……Page 292
Molecular Oxygen……Page 293
Nitric Oxide……Page 294
5.1.1 TOTAL SCATTERING CROSS SECTIONS IN CO2……Page 296
5.1.2 ELASTIC AND MOMENTUM TRANSFER CROSS SECTIONS IN CO2……Page 299
5.1.3 RO-VIBRATIONAL EXCITATION CROSS SECTIONS IN CO2……Page 301
5.1.4 ELECTRONIC EXCITATION CROSS SECTIONS IN CO2……Page 304
5.1.5 IONIZATION CROSS SECTIONS IN CO2……Page 307
5.2 HYDROCARBON GASES CxHy……Page 308
5.2.1 TOTAL SCATTERING CROSS SECTIONS IN CXHY……Page 309
5.2.2 INELASTIC SCATTERING CROSS SECTIONS IN CXHY……Page 311
5.3 MERCURY VAPOR……Page 312
5.4 NITROUS OXIDE (N2O)……Page 315
5.5 OZONE (O3)……Page 319
5.7 SULFUR HEXAFLUORIDE (SF6)……Page 322
5.7.1 TOTAL SCATTERING CROSS SECTION IN SF6……Page 325
5.7.2 MOMENTUM TRANSFER CROSS SECTIONS IN SF6……Page 327
5.7.4 VIBRATIONAL EXCITATION CROSS SECTIONS IN SF6……Page 329
5.7.5 ELECTRONIC EXCITATION CROSS SECTIONS IN SF6……Page 332
5.7.6 IONIZATION CROSS SECTIONS IN SF6……Page 333
5.8 WATER VAPOR (H2O)……Page 334
5.9.1 TETRAFLUOROMETHANE (CF4)……Page 337
5.9.2 PERFLUOROETHANE (C2F6)……Page 339
5.9.3 PERFLUOROPROPANE (C3F8)……Page 341
5.9.4 DICHLORODIFLUOROMETHANE (CCl2F2)……Page 342
5.10.9 URANIUM FLUORIDE (UF6)……Page 344
5.11 CONCLUDING REMARKS……Page 345
CARBON DIOXIDE……Page 347
HYDROCARBON GASES……Page 349
NITROUS OXIDE (N2O)……Page 350
OZONE (O3)……Page 351
SULFUR HEXAFLUORIDE (SF6)……Page 352
WATER VAPOR (H2O)……Page 353
PLASMA PROCESSING GASES……Page 354
OTHER GASES……Page 355
6.1 DEFINITIONS……Page 358
6.2 DRIFT AND DIFFUSION MEASUREMENT……Page 359
6.3 ELECTRON ENERGY DISTRIBUTION……Page 363
6.4 APPROXIMATE METHODS……Page 366
6.5.1 AIR (DRY AND HUMID)……Page 368
6.5.2 ARGON……Page 370
6.5.3 CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2)……Page 379
6.5.4 CARBON MONOXIDE (CO)……Page 383
6.5.5 HELIUM (HE)……Page 386
6.5.6 HYDROGEN (H2) AND DEUTERIUM (D2)……Page 391
6.5.7 KRYPTON (KR)……Page 400
6.5.8 METALLIC VAPORS……Page 402
6.5.9 NEON (NE)……Page 410
6.5.10 NITROGEN (N2)……Page 413
6.5.11 OXYGEN (O2)……Page 422
6.5.12 XENON (XE)……Page 426
REFERENCES……Page 428
ARGON (AR)……Page 429
CARBON MONOXIDE (CO)……Page 430
DEUTERIUM……Page 431
METALLIC VAPORS……Page 432
NITROGEN……Page 433
OXYGEN (O2)……Page 434
XENON (XE)……Page 435
7.1 CURRENT PULSE DUE TO AVALANCHE……Page 436
7.1.1 ELECTRON CURRENT (INTEGRATING MODE)……Page 439
7.1.2 ELECTRON CURRENT (DIFFERENTIAL MODE)……Page 440
7.2 ARRIVAL TIME SPECTRUM METHOD……Page 443
7.3 HYDROCARBON GASES……Page 445
7.3.1 METHANE (CH4)……Page 447
7.3.2 ETHANE (C2H6)……Page 450
7.4 NITROGEN COMPOUNDS……Page 452
7.4.1 AMMONIA……Page 453
7.5.1 TRIFLUOROMETHANE (CHF3)……Page 455
7.5.2 TETRAFLUOROMETHANE (CF4)……Page 459
7.5.5 PERFLUOROPROPANE (C3F8)……Page 461
7.5.6 SILANE (SIH4)……Page 462
7.6 SULFUR HEXAFLUORIDE (SF6)……Page 463
7.7 WATER VAPOR (H2O AND D2O)……Page 467
7.8.1 HALOGENS……Page 469
7.9 CONCLUDING REMARKS……Page 472
HYDROCARBON GASES……Page 476
PLASMA PROCESSING GASES……Page 478
SULFUR HEXAFLUORIDE (SF6)……Page 479
HALOGENS……Page 480
CONCLUDING REMARKS……Page 481
8.2 CURRENT GROWTH IN UNIFORM FIELDS……Page 482
8.2.1 MEASUREMENT……Page 485
8.3 FUNCTIONAL DEPENDENCE OF a/N ON E/N……Page 487
8.4 SPACE CHARGE EFFECTS……Page 490
8.5 BREAKDOWN IN UNIFORM FIELDS……Page 494
8.6 MULTIPLICATION IN NONUNIFORM FIELDS……Page 499
8.6.2 RADIAL ELECTRIC FIELD IN A COAXIAL CYLINDRICAL GEOMETRY……Page 501
8.7 RECOMBINATION……Page 503
8.8 DATA ON IONIZATION COEFFICIENTS 8.8.1 RARE GASES……Page 504
8.9.1 HYDROCARBON GASES……Page 509
8.9.2 HYDROGEN AND NITROGEN……Page 511
8.10 OTHER GASES (NONATTACHING) 8.10.1 MERCURY VAPOR……Page 514
REFERENCES……Page 516
RECOMBINATION……Page 517
ARGON……Page 518
HYDROCARBON GASES……Page 520
NITROGEN……Page 521
MERCURY VAPOR……Page 522
9.1 ATTACHMENT PROCESSES……Page 524
9.2 CURRENT GROWTH IN ATTACHING GASES……Page 525
9.3.1 DRY AND HUMID AIR……Page 529
9.3.2 CARBON DIOXIDE AND CARBON MONOXIDE……Page 532
9.3.3 FREON-12 (CCl2F2)……Page 535
9.3.4 HALOGENS……Page 536
9.3.5 NITROGEN COMPOUNDS……Page 542
9.3.6 OXYGEN (O2)……Page 553
9.3.7 SULFUR HEXAFLUORIDE (SF6)……Page 555
9.3.8 SELECTED INDUSTRIAL GASES……Page 563
CO……Page 565
HALOGENS……Page 566
NITROGEN COMPOUNDS……Page 567
OXYGEN……Page 568
SULFUR HEXAFLUORIDE……Page 569
INDUSTRIAL GASES……Page 570
10.1 TYPES OF VOLTAGE……Page 572
10.2 HIGH DIRECT VOLTAGE GENERATION……Page 573
10.3 HIGH ALTERNATING VOLTAGE GENERATION……Page 576
10.4 HIGH IMPULSE VOLTAGE GENERATION……Page 577
10.5 IONIZATION IN ALTERNATING FIELDS……Page 581
10.6 SPARKING VOLTAGES……Page 583
10.6.1 ATMOSPHERIC AIR……Page 584
10.6.2 SULFUR HEXAFLUORIDE (SF6)……Page 592
10.6.3 VOLT–TIME CHARACTERISTICS……Page 598
REFERENCES……Page 602
11.1 LIST OF SYMBOLS……Page 606
11.2 BRIEF HISTORICAL NOTE……Page 608
11.3 ELECTRON MOTION IN VACUUM IN E3B FIELDS……Page 609
11.4 EFFECTIVE REDUCED ELECTRIC FIELD (EREF)……Page 611
11.6 IONIZATION COEFFICIENTS……Page 614
11.7.1 AIR……Page 617
11.7.2 ARGON……Page 619
11.7.3 HYDROGEN……Page 620
11.7.4 NITROGEN……Page 621
11.7.5 OXYGEN……Page 624
11.8 SECONDARY IONIZATION COEFFICIENT……Page 625
11.9.1 UNIFORM ELECTRIC FIELDS……Page 627
11.9.2 NONUNIFORM ELECTRIC FIELDS……Page 630
11.10 TIME LAGS IN E3B CROSSED FIELDS……Page 631
11.11 COMPUTATIONAL METHODS……Page 636
11.12 EFFECTIVE COLLISION FREQUENCY……Page 639
REFERENCES……Page 641
12.1 BASIC PLASMA PHENOMENA……Page 644
12.2 DEBYE LENGTH……Page 647
12.3 BOHM SHEATH MODEL……Page 648
12.4 PLASMA FREQUENCY……Page 649
12.7 RF PLASMA……Page 651
12.7.1 EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES……Page 653
12.8 POWER ABSORBED……Page 656
12.8.2 SHEATH–GLOW BOUNDARY……Page 657
12.8.3 SHEATH……Page 658
12.8.4 DISCUSSION……Page 659
12.9 MICROWAVE BREAKDOWN……Page 661
12.10 LASER BREAKDOWN……Page 665
REFERENCES……Page 667
Appendix 1 Constants
……Page 670
A2 A. ELECTRON QUANTUM NUMBERS……Page 672
A2 B. TERM NOTATION FOR ATOMS……Page 673
A2 C. ELECTRONIC STATES IN MOLECULES……Page 677
A2 D. ROTATIONAL AND VIBRATIONAL EXCITATION……Page 679
REFERENCES……Page 682
Appendix 3 Cross Sections of
Methane……Page 684
REFERENCES……Page 685
Appendix 4 Reduced Ionization Coefficient in He,Ne,Ar,Kr,Xe
……Page 686
REFERENCES……Page 689
Appendix 5 Dissociative Attachment in Industrial Gases
……Page 690
Appendix 6 Reduced Ionization Coefficient in Air, CO2, CO, SO2
……Page 692
REFERENCES……Page 693
Appendix 7 Ionization Potentials
……Page 694
A……Page 696
C……Page 697
D……Page 699
F……Page 700
G……Page 701
H……Page 702
K……Page 703
M……Page 704
N……Page 705
P……Page 706
S……Page 707
V……Page 708
Y……Page 709
Back cover……Page 710