Gasification

Christopher Higman, Maarten van der Burgt9780750685283, 075068528X

The gasification process converts any carbon-containing material into a synthesis gas composed primarily of carbon monoxide and hydrogen, which can be used as a fuel to generate electricity or steam or used as a basic chemical building block for a large number of uses in the petrochemical and refining industries. Gasification adds value to low or negative value feedstocks by converting them to marketable fuels and products.This is the first book to cover gasification as a comprehensive topic, covering its many uses, from refining, to natural gas, to coal. This book provides an up-to-date overview of commercial processes and covers applications relevant to today’s demands. The new edition is expanded and provides more detail on the integration issues for current generation, state-of-the-art Integrated Gasification Combined Cycles (IGCC); CO2 capture in the IGCC context addressing the issues of pre-investment and retrofitting as well as defining what the term “CO2 capture ready” might mean in practice; issues of plant reliability, availability and maintainability (RAM) including as evaluation of feedback from existing plants; implementation of fuel cell technology in IGCC concepts. All statistics, processes and projects, including descriptions of a number of processes not covered in the previous edition.

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Table of contents :
Front cover……Page 1
copyright……Page 5
Contents……Page 6
Preface……Page 8
TERMINOLOGY……Page 10
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS……Page 11
1.1 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF GASIFICATION……Page 12
1.2 GASIFICATION TODAY……Page 16
2. The Thermodynamics of Gasification……Page 20
2.1 REACTIONS……Page 21
2.2 THERMODYNAMIC MODELING OF GASIFICATION……Page 24
2.2.1 Basic Data……Page 25
2.2.2 Equations……Page 27
2.3.1 Effect of Pressure……Page 28
2.3.2 Effect of Temperature……Page 30
2.3.3 Fuel Footprint……Page 31
2.4 OPTIMIZING PROCESS CONDITIONS……Page 34
2.4.1 Process Indicators……Page 35
2.4.2 Optimum Operating Point……Page 36
3.1 KINETICS……Page 40
3.1.1 Devolatilization……Page 41
3.1.2 Volatiles Combustion……Page 42
3.1.3 Char Gasification……Page 43
3.2 REACTOR THEORY……Page 46
3.3.1 Modeling……Page 49
4.1 COALS AND COKE……Page 52
4.1.2 Coal Analysis……Page 53
4.1.3 Other Minerals in Coal……Page 58
4.1.4 Other Properties……Page 59
4.1.5 Ash Properties……Page 60
4.2.1 Refinery Residues……Page 64
4.2.2 Other Liquid Feedstocks……Page 74
4.2.3 Natural Gas……Page 77
4.3 BIOMASS……Page 78
4.3.1 Properties of Biomass……Page 79
4.3.2 Black Liquor……Page 81
4.3.3 Biomass Production……Page 83
4.3.4 Development Potential……Page 84
4.4.1 Solid Waste……Page 87
4.4.2 Liquid Wastes……Page 89
5. Gasification Processes……Page 96
5.1 MOVING- BED PROCESSES……Page 98
5.1.1 The Lurgi Dry Ash Process……Page 99
5.1.2 British Gas/ Lurgi ( BGL) Slagging Gasifier……Page 105
5.1.3 Ruhr 100……Page 108
5.2 FLUID- BED GASIFIERS……Page 109
5.2.1 Common Issues……Page 110
5.2.2 The Winkler Process……Page 112
5.2.3 The High- Temperature Winkler ( HTW) Process……Page 114
5.2.5 The KBR Transport Gasifier……Page 116
5.2.6 Agglomerating Fluid- Bed Processes……Page 118
5.2.7 Development Potential……Page 119
5.3 ENTRAINED- FLOW GASIFIERS……Page 120
5.3.1 General Considerations……Page 124
5.3.2 The Koppers- Totzek Atmospheric Process……Page 128
5.3.3 Shell Coal Gasification Process ( SCGP) and Prenflo Process……Page 129
5.3.4 The Noell Process……Page 131
5.3.5 The Texaco Process……Page 133
5.3.6 The E- Gas Process……Page 136
5.3.7 The CCP Gasifier……Page 137
5.4 OIL GASIFICATION AND PARTIAL OXIDATION OF NATURAL GAS……Page 139
5.4.1 The Texaco Gasification Process……Page 140
5.4.2 The Shell Gasification Process ( SGP)……Page 144
5.4.3 Lurgi’s Multipurpose Gasification Process ( MPG)……Page 151
5.4.4 New Developments……Page 153
5.4.5 Process Safety……Page 157
5.5 BIOMASS GASIFICATION……Page 158
5.5.1 Fluid- Bed Processes……Page 159
5.5.2 Twin Fluid- Bed Steam Gasification……Page 161
5.5.3 Pyrolysis Processes……Page 164
5.6 GASIFICATION OF WASTES……Page 166
5.6.1 Coal Gasifiers in Waste Service……Page 167
5.6.2 Purpose Developed Processes……Page 168
5.7.1 The Chemrec Process……Page 170
5.7.2 MTCI “Pulse Enhanced” Steam Reformer……Page 171
5.8.1 In situ Gasification……Page 172
5.8.4 Hydrogasification……Page 173
6.1 EFFECT OF PRESSURE……Page 182
6.2.1 Dry- Coal Feeding with Lock Hoppers……Page 184
6.2.2 Pumping Coal as a Coal- Water Slurry……Page 188
6.2.3 Wet Lock Hoppers……Page 190
6.2.4 Tall Hoppers for Pressurizing……Page 191
6.2.5 Miscellaneous Methods of Pressurizing……Page 193
6.3.2 Coal Drying……Page 194
6.4.1 Reactor Embodiment……Page 195
6.4.2 Reactor Containment and Heat Loss……Page 196
6.5 BURNERS……Page 202
6.6 SYNTHESIS GAS COOLING……Page 203
6.6.1 Quenching……Page 204
6.6.2 Synthesis Gas Coolers……Page 207
6.6.3 Syngas Cooling in Oil Service……Page 208
6.7.1 Dry Solids Removal……Page 211
6.8.1 Gasification Temperature Measurement……Page 212
6.8.3 Gas Analysis……Page 215
6.9.1 Sulfur Compounds……Page 219
6.9.2 Nitrogen Compounds……Page 220
6.9.5 Oxygen……Page 223
6.9.7 Carbon……Page 224
6.9.8 Metal Carbonyls……Page 225
6.9.9 Mercury……Page 228
6.9.10 Arsenic……Page 229
6.10.1 Effect of Oxidant on the Gasification Process……Page 230
6.10.2 Equipment Sizing and Gas Flow Rate……Page 232
6.10.3 Parasitic Power……Page 233
6.11.1 Sulfur……Page 234
6.11.3 Chlorides……Page 235
6.11.4 Metal Dusting……Page 236
7.1 CHEMICALS……Page 242
7.1.1 Ammonia……Page 243
7.1.2 Methanol……Page 250
7.1.3 Hydrogen……Page 254
7.1.4 Carbon Monoxide and Oxo- Alcohols……Page 260
7.2 SYNFUELS……Page 263
7.2.1 Gas to Liquids……Page 265
7.2.2 SNG from Coal……Page 269
7.3 POWER……Page 270
7.3.1 Comparison with Combustion……Page 271
7.3.2 State- of- the- Art IGCC……Page 278
7.3.3 Advanced Cycles……Page 281
7.3.4 Flue Gas Treatment……Page 289
7.3.6 Energy Storage……Page 298
8.1.1 Technologies……Page 304
8.1.2 Pipeline and Other Supply Possibilities……Page 308
8.2.1 Selection Criteria……Page 309
8.2.2 Absorption Systems……Page 311
8.2.3 Adsorption Systems……Page 320
8.2.4 Membrane Systems……Page 323
8.3 CO SHIFT……Page 326
8.3.1 Clean Gas Shift……Page 327
8.3.2 Raw Gas Shift……Page 328
8.4.1 The Claus Process……Page 329
8.4.2 Tail Gas Treatment……Page 332
8.4.4 Sulfuric Acid……Page 334
9.1 ECONOMICS……Page 340
9.2 ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES……Page 346
9.2.1 Gaseous Effluents……Page 347
9.2.2 Greenhouse Gases……Page 350
9.2.3 Liquid Effluents……Page 355
9.2.4 Solid Effluents……Page 356
9.3 SAFETY……Page 358
9.3.3 Spontaneous Combustion……Page 359
9.3.5 Oxygen……Page 360
10. Gasification and the Future……Page 366
Appendix A: Companion Website……Page 370
Appendix B: Conversion Factors……Page 372
Appendix C: Emissions Conversion Factors……Page 378
Appendix D: Guidelines for Reporting Operating Statistics for Gasification Facilities……Page 380
Appendix E: Basis for Calculations……Page 384
Nomenclature……Page 386
List of Names and Abbreviations……Page 388
Index……Page 392