Encyclopedia of Applied Psychology

Table of contents :
Preface, Page xxi.pdf……Page 0
Editor-in-Chief……Page 2
Editorial Advisors……Page 3
Glossary……Page 7
School Readiness……Page 8
Academic, Instructional, and Motivational Reasons……Page 9
Early Intervention Programs……Page 10
Preventing School Failure in the Elementary Grades……Page 11
Conclusion……Page 12
Further Reading……Page 13
Overview……Page 14
Selecting Academic Interventions……Page 15
Implementing Academic Interventions……Page 18
Curriculum-Based Assessment……Page 20
Interventions to Improve Reading Performance……Page 21
Reciprocal Peer Tutoring……Page 22
School-Home Notes……Page 23
Further Reading……Page 24
Why Is It Important to Understand Accidents?……Page 25
Applied Psychology and Accidents……Page 26
Why Do Accidents Happen?……Page 27
Interventions, New Technology, and Future Developments……Page 28
Further Reading……Page 29
Glossary……Page 30
Acculturation Concept……Page 31
Acculturation Contexts……Page 32
Acculturation Strategies……Page 33
Acculturative Stress……Page 34
Adaptation……Page 35
Further Reading……Page 36
Introduction……Page 38
Current Perspectives……Page 39
Promoting Achievement Motivation……Page 42
Further Reading……Page 43
Glossary……Page 44
Definitions and Examples……Page 45
Types of Achievement Tests……Page 46
Evaluating Achievement Tests……Page 47
Further Reading……Page 49
Approaches to Culture in the Context of Advertising and Consumer Behavior……Page 50
Horizontal and Vertical Cultural Orientations……Page 51
Salient Self-Construal……Page 52
Factors That Covary with Culture……Page 53
Further Reading……Page 54
Introduction……Page 55
Contemporary Perspectives……Page 56
Exposure……Page 57
Interpretation……Page 58
Short- and Long-Term Memory……Page 59
Low- and High-Involvement Learning……Page 60
The Structure of Attitudes……Page 61
Functions of Attitudes……Page 63
Persuasion……Page 64
Dual-Process Theories……Page 65
Further Reading……Page 66
Glossary……Page 67
Legal Definitions……Page 68
Target Groups……Page 69
Affirmative Action and Stigmatization……Page 70
Target Group Members’ Anticipation of Stigmatization……Page 71
Attitudes toward Affirmative Action……Page 72
Individual Difference Variables……Page 73
Opinion Variables……Page 74
Political Orientation……Page 75
Comparison among Theories……Page 76
Self-Interest (Personal and Collective)……Page 77
Conclusions……Page 78
Further Reading……Page 79
Glossary……Page 80
The Changing Nature of Aging in America……Page 81
Socioeconomic Status……Page 82
Work and Retirement……Page 83
Sources and Types of Informal Support/Care……Page 84
Receiving Care……Page 85
Importance of Perceived Control to Physical and Mental Health Outcomes……Page 86
Burden, Stress, Depression as a Result of Providing Care……Page 87
Spouse Caregiver……Page 88
Racial and Ethnic Minority Elderly as a Resource……Page 89
Conclusions……Page 90
Further Reading……Page 91
Culture and Aggression: Contexts for Exercising Coercive Control……Page 92
Culture as Contexts for Influence……Page 93
Waging War and Internal Political Violence……Page 94
Social Psychological Mechanisms……Page 95
Culture and Studies of Aggression in Individuals……Page 97
Further Reading……Page 99
Glossary……Page 100
Legal Frameworks for Aging and Competency……Page 101
Consequences of Guardianship……Page 102
Financial Management……Page 103
Further Reading……Page 104
Introduction……Page 105
Aging, Culture, and Families……Page 106
Cultural Diversity and Aging……Page 107
Cultural Influences on the Health of Aging People……Page 108
Further Reading……Page 109
Extent and Cost of Medication Nonadherence in the Elderly……Page 111
Adherence: A Complex Cognitive Task……Page 112
Knowledge, Beliefs, and Communication: Age-Related Changes and Effects on Adherence……Page 113
Measuring Adherence: A Difficult Challenge……Page 114
Further Reading……Page 115
Describing Agreeableness: What Is It?……Page 117
External Correlates: What Is Agreeableness Related To?……Page 118
Etiology/Antecedents: Where Does Agreeableness Come From?……Page 119
Conclusion……Page 120
Further Reading……Page 121
Who Becomes Alcoholic?……Page 122
Syndromes……Page 123
Psychiatric and Medical Complications……Page 124
Long-Term Recovery from Alcoholism……Page 125
Further Reading……Page 126
Introduction……Page 127
The Contribution of Patient H.M…….Page 128
Anterograde Amnesia……Page 129
Repetition Priming……Page 130
Anoxia……Page 131
Stroke……Page 132
Declarative Memory……Page 133
Approaches to Treatment of Amnesic Disorders……Page 134
Further Reading……Page 136
Introduction……Page 137
Traditional Theoretical Perspectives on the Anxiety-Performance Relationship……Page 138
The IZOF Model……Page 139
Interindividual Variability in Optimal Anxiety……Page 140
Impact of Optimal Anxiety on Performance……Page 141
Further Reading……Page 142
Epidemiology of Anxiety Disorders in Older Adults……Page 143
Comorbidity……Page 144
Assessment……Page 145
Psychosocial Treatment of Late-Life Panic Disorder……Page 146
Assessment and Treatment of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder……Page 147
Assessment and Treatment of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder……Page 148
Issues Related to Anxiety Secondary to a Medical Condition……Page 149
Further Reading……Page 150
Introduction……Page 153
Drive Theory……Page 154
Inverted-U Hypothesis……Page 155
Newer Theories……Page 156
Effects of Arousal on Athletic Performance……Page 157
Further Reading……Page 158
Concept……Page 160
Theoretical Perspectives……Page 161
Medical……Page 163
Psychodynamic……Page 164
Constructivist……Page 165
Interview……Page 166
Self-reports……Page 167
The Process of Assessment, Treatment, and Evaluation……Page 169
Conclusions……Page 170
Further Reading……Page 172
Introduction……Page 174
Interviews……Page 175
Behavioral Observation……Page 176
Formal Assessment Versus Informal Assessment……Page 177
History and Current Assessment Tools (North American)……Page 178
16 Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF)……Page 179
Competition Reflections……Page 180
Sport Competition Anxiety Test (SCAT)……Page 181
Wonderlic Personnel Test (WPT)……Page 182
Response Sets and Styles……Page 183
Future Directions……Page 184
Further Reading……Page 187
Glossary……Page 188
John Bowlby (1907-1990)……Page 189
Procedure……Page 190
The Attachment Q-Sort……Page 191
Assessing Adult Attachment Representations……Page 192
Parental Caregiving Behavior……Page 193
Child Temperament……Page 194
Attachment Throughout the Life Span: Stability and Change……Page 195
Cognitive Development……Page 196
Enhancing Parental Sensitivity……Page 197
See Also the Following Articles……Page 198
Further Reading……Page 199
Historical Context……Page 200
Gross Characteristics of Attention……Page 201
Attention and Perception……Page 202
Substrates of Attentional Networks……Page 203
Further Reading……Page 205
Glossary……Page 206
‘‘Attention’’ and ‘‘Concentration’’ in Sport……Page 207
Performance Goal Setting……Page 208
Trigger Words……Page 209
New Directions in Research on Concentration Skills Training……Page 210
Further Reading……Page 211
Description and Definition of Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder……Page 212
Intervening at the Point of Performance……Page 213
Using Multiple Intervention Agents……Page 214
Teacher-Mediated Strategies……Page 215
Computer-Assisted Interventions……Page 216
Parent-Mediated Interventions……Page 217
Intervention Considerations for Secondary School-Aged Students……Page 218
Further Reading……Page 219
Core Characteristics of Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder……Page 221
ADHD with Other Disorders……Page 222
Etiology of ADHD……Page 223
ADHD During Adolescence……Page 224
Other Evidence-Based Interventions……Page 225
Risk and Resiliency Factors that Affect ADHD……Page 226
Further Reading……Page 227
Glossary……Page 228
The Historical Problem: Attitudes Did Not Predict Behaviors……Page 229
Principle of Correspondence……Page 230
Attitudes Toward Objects or Behaviors and Behavioral Categories……Page 231
Open Attitude Measures……Page 232
Implicit Attitude Measures……Page 233
Direct and Indirect Attitude Measures……Page 234
The Separate Measurement of Attitudes and Subjective Norms……Page 235
Consumer Applications……Page 236
Conclusion……Page 237
Further Reading……Page 238
Introduction……Page 239
The Tripartite Model of Attitudes……Page 240
Attitude Strength……Page 241
Attitude Change……Page 242
Further Reading……Page 243
Historical Background……Page 244
Concept of the Authoritarian Personality……Page 245
Similar Contemporary Concepts……Page 246
Consequences……Page 247
Further Reading……Page 248
History……Page 249
Sources of Basic Principles and Theoretical Approaches……Page 250
Automation and Human-Machine Interfaces……Page 251
Occupations and Employment……Page 252
Further Reading……Page 253
History……Page 254
Sources of Basic Principles and Theoretical Approaches……Page 255
Automation and Human-Machine Interfaces……Page 256
Occupations and Employment……Page 257
Further Reading……Page 258
Glossary……Page 259
Rationale for School-Based Assessment……Page 260
Traditional Assessment……Page 261
Functional Behavioral Assessment……Page 263
Interviews……Page 262
Rating Scales……Page 264
Legal and Ethical Issues……Page 265
Further Reading……Page 267
Glossary……Page 268
Depression and Health in Older Adults……Page 269
Behavioral Sleep Medicine and Aging……Page 270
Stimulus Control……Page 271
Behavioral Medicine Issues in the Frail Old……Page 272
Further Reading……Page 273
General Methods of Behavioral Observation……Page 274
Coding Schemes……Page 275
Summarizing Behavioral Observation Data……Page 276
Reliability and Validity of Behavioral Observation……Page 277
Further Reading……Page 278
Introduction……Page 279
Psychophysical Model……Page 280
Measuring Boredom……Page 281
Consequences of Boredom at Work……Page 282
Work Environment Interventions to Prevent and/or Alleviate Boredom at Work……Page 283
Further Reading……Page 284
Introduction……Page 285
How Common Is Bullying on School Campuses?……Page 286
What Are the Effects?……Page 287
Classroom-Level Responses……Page 288
The Special Role of Bystanders……Page 289
See Also the Following Articles……Page 290
Further Reading……Page 291
The Evolution of the Definition……Page 292
Theories of Career Development……Page 293
Further Reading……Page 294
Glossary……Page 295
Cheating and Validity……Page 296
Detecting Cheating……Page 297
Preventing Cheating……Page 298
Further Reading……Page 299
Introduction……Page 300
The Context of Sport……Page 301
What Is Cheating?……Page 302
The Motivation to Cheat: Achievement Goals as a Determinant of Moral Action……Page 303
Dispositional Achievement Goals……Page 304
Perceived Motivational Climate and Determinants of Cheating……Page 306
What Can We Do about Cheating?……Page 308
Further Reading……Page 309
Psychology’s Contribution to Understanding Best Interests……Page 310
Psychological Assessment: What Can We Measure?……Page 311
Dancing with Attorneys without Tripping……Page 313
Following the Rainbow……Page 314
Further Reading……Page 315
Study of Child Development in Psychology……Page 316
Life Stages and Culture……Page 317
Development in Context……Page 318
The Value of Children and Family as Developmental Niche……Page 319
Development of Competence……Page 320
Cognitive Development: Piaget and Vygotsky……Page 321
Nature-Nurture Debate and Plasticity……Page 322
Developmental Norms……Page 323
Problems in Development……Page 324
Further Reading……Page 325
Glossary……Page 326
To-Be-Remembered Event Characteristics……Page 327
Interview Characteristics……Page 328
Children’s Involvement in the Legal System……Page 329
Conclusions……Page 330
Further Reading……Page 331
From Pavlov to the Present……Page 332
Basic Conditioning Procedure……Page 333
What Influences Classical Conditioning?……Page 334
Clinical Treatment……Page 335
Further Reading……Page 336
Differential Diagnosis……Page 337
Standardized Tests……Page 338
Malingering and Deception……Page 339
Computer-Based Test Interpretation……Page 340
Further Reading……Page 341
Glossary……Page 342
Attention and Perception……Page 343
Categorization……Page 344
Social Inference……Page 345
Language and Communication Style……Page 346
Intelligence……Page 347
Further Reading……Page 348
Glossary……Page 349
Economic Needs……Page 350
Decline of Specific Aptitudes through the Life Span……Page 351
Alzheimer’s Disease……Page 352
Evidence for Optimal Cognitive Aging……Page 353
Correlates of Optimal Cognitive Aging……Page 354
Activities That Directly Benefit Cognition……Page 355
Activities That Indirectly Benefit Cognition……Page 356
Selective Optimization with Compensation……Page 357
Looking Ahead……Page 358
Further Reading……Page 359
Introduction……Page 360
Cognitive and Behavioral Theories of Depressed Affect……Page 361
General Issues in Considering Types of Interventions……Page 362
Cognitive Restructuring……Page 363
Maximizing Control……Page 364
Pets/Dolls……Page 365
Clear Labels and Signs……Page 366
Combination Therapies……Page 367
Further Reading……Page 368
Cognitive Skills and Their Importance for Daily Functioning……Page 369
Memory……Page 370
How Cognitive Skills May Be Maintained……Page 371
Cognitive Training……Page 372
Transfer of Training……Page 373
Further Reading……Page 374
Glossary……Page 375
Cognitivism During the Behaviorist Era……Page 376
Cognitive Science……Page 377
The Level of Physical Implementation……Page 378
Systems Approach……Page 379
Representation……Page 380
Process……Page 381
Further Reading……Page 382
Glossary……Page 384
Instrumentality……Page 385
Identity……Page 387
Ideology……Page 388
The Transformation of Potentiality into Action……Page 389
Further Reading……Page 390
Glossary……Page 391
Introduction……Page 392
The Origin of Metamers……Page 393
Diagnosing Dichromatism and Anomalous Trichromatism with an Anomaloscope……Page 394
Causes of Color Blindness……Page 395
Detecting and Diagnosing Color Blindness: A Two-Step Strategy……Page 396
Problems Related to the Use of Basic Chromatic Categories……Page 398
Further Reading……Page 400
Introduction……Page 401
Empirical Grounding: The Research Basis for Efforts to Make a Positive Difference in Communities and the Larger Society……Page 402
Ecological Multilevel Framework……Page 403
Social Problems……Page 404
Sense of Community……Page 405
Prevention and Promotion……Page 406
Further Reading……Page 407
Glossary……Page 409
Fringe Benefits……Page 410
Job Evaluation……Page 411
Performance Appraisal: Qualitative Versus Quantitative Yardsticks……Page 412
Control by Employees……Page 413
Further Reading……Page 414
The Concept of Competence at Work……Page 415
Measurement and Assessment of Competence……Page 417
Barriers to Effective Assessment……Page 418
Developing and Improving Competence……Page 419
Further Reading……Page 420
Competitive Sport: A Worldwide Phenomenon……Page 421
A Model for Understanding Competition……Page 422
Stress in Sport……Page 423
Managing Competitive Stress……Page 424
Further Reading……Page 425
Introduction……Page 426
The Conflict Process……Page 427
Conflict Management Strategies……Page 428
Structural Conditions Affecting Conflict……Page 429
Organizational Characteristics……Page 430
Conflict Outcomes……Page 431
Methods of Intervention……Page 432
See Also the Following Articles……Page 433
Further Reading……Page 434
Comparisons of Subsistence Economies……Page 435
Conformity and Individualism-Collectivism……Page 436
Conformity or Harmony?……Page 437
Further Reading……Page 438
Glossary……Page 439
General Features of the Connectionist Cognitive Architecture……Page 440
Localist and Distributed Representational Systems and Their Properties……Page 441
Dynamics of an Information Processing Unit……Page 442
Dynamics of Interunit Connections……Page 443
Examples of Connectionist Architectures……Page 444
Applications of Connectionism……Page 445
Further Reading……Page 446
Conscientiousness as a Dimension of Personality……Page 447
Mental Health and Psychotherapy……Page 448
Conclusion……Page 449
Further Reading……Page 450
Conceptions of Conservation Behavior……Page 451
Goal-Directed Action: One Class of Behavioral Means……Page 452
No Goal, No Drive……Page 453
Differentially Striving for a Single Goal……Page 454
Further Reading……Page 455
Introduction……Page 456
Relationship and Interpersonal Aspects……Page 457
Further Reading……Page 458
Glossary……Page 459
I Buy, Therefore I Am……Page 460
Need Recognition……Page 461
Evaluation of Alternatives……Page 462
Postpurchase Evaluation and Satisfaction……Page 463
Biases in the Decision-Making Process……Page 464
Psychological Influences on Consumption……Page 465
Cultural and Interpersonal Influences on Consumption……Page 466
Further Reading……Page 467
What Is a Contract?……Page 469
Cross-National Differences……Page 470
See Also the Following Articles……Page 471
Further Reading……Page 472
Glossary……Page 473
Teamwork Examined……Page 474
Teamwork Derailers……Page 475
Facilitators of Teamwork……Page 476
Promoting Cooperation and Teamwork at Work through Training……Page 477
Measuring Team Performance and Effectiveness……Page 479
Conclusion……Page 480
Further Reading……Page 481
Types of Coping……Page 482
Coping Processes……Page 483
Coping with Trauma……Page 484
Further Reading……Page 485
Introduction……Page 486
Culturally Learned Assumptions in Counselor Education……Page 487
Multicultural Theories of Counseling……Page 489
Resistance to Multiculturalism as a Fourth Force……Page 491
Further Reading……Page 492
Glossary……Page 494
Dynamics of Counselor-Client Interaction……Page 495
Values and Ethics……Page 496
Trust……Page 497
Diversity……Page 498
Conclusion……Page 499
Further Reading……Page 500
Definition of Cross-Cultural Psychology……Page 501
History of Cross-Cultural Psychology……Page 502
Levels of Analysis……Page 503
Emics and Etics……Page 504
Tightness and Looseness……Page 505
Collectivism and Individualism……Page 506
Antecedents of Collectivism……Page 507
Consequences Of Collectivism for Cognition, Emotion, and Motivation……Page 508
Power Distance……Page 509
Evaluation of Findings and Applications……Page 510
Further Reading……Page 511
Glossary……Page 513
Theories on the Origins of Cultural Complexity……Page 514
Measuring Cultural Complexity……Page 515
Cultural Complexity and Dimensions of Cultural Variation……Page 516
Globalization and Cultural Complexity……Page 517
Further Reading……Page 518
Glossary……Page 519
Cultural Psychology Compared with Cross-Cultural Psychology……Page 520
Sociopolitical Roots of Cultural Psychology……Page 522
Parental Ethnotheories: An Example of Shared Meaning……Page 523
Apprenticeship: The Historical Transformation of Shared Practice……Page 524
Application of Cultural Psychology……Page 525
Further Reading……Page 526
Glossary……Page 528
Individualism……Page 529
Hierarchy Versus Equality……Page 530
Relationships among the Cultural Syndromes……Page 531
See Also the Following Articles……Page 532
Further Reading……Page 533
Glossary……Page 534
Cyberspace: A Technocultural Realm……Page 535
Cyberpsychology: An Increasingly Grounded Brand Name……Page 536
A Tool for Psychologists……Page 538
Psychological Processes and Human Performance……Page 539
Further Reading……Page 540
Introduction……Page 542
Features and Distinctions……Page 543
Uncertainty/Probability……Page 544
Models and Modes of Decision Making……Page 545
Areas of Application……Page 546
Further Reading……Page 547
Introduction……Page 548
Nonsport Perspectives on DM……Page 549
DM in Sport: The Dynamics and Mechanisms……Page 550
Visual-Spatial Attention……Page 551
Anticipatory Mechanisms……Page 552
Memory Representations, Information Delivery, and Knowledge Structure……Page 553
DM in Teams……Page 554
Perceived Stress and DM……Page 555
Summary: A Holistic View of DM in Sport……Page 556
Further Reading……Page 557
Glossary……Page 558
Myths and Stereotyping……Page 559
Pharmacological Effects……Page 560
Screening and Diagnostic Tools……Page 561
Stroke, Atherosclerosis of Cerebral Arteries, High Cholesterol, and Hypertension……Page 562
Management Concerns……Page 563
Further Reading……Page 564
Epidemiology of Late-Life Depression……Page 565
Relations Among Depression, Physical Diseases, and Medications……Page 566
Zung Self-Rating Depression Scale……Page 567
Psychodynamic Therapies……Page 568
Life Review Therapy……Page 569
Further Reading……Page 570
Introduction……Page 572
The Developmental Viewpoint……Page 573
Collaborative Relationships……Page 574
Appraisal in Developmental Counseling……Page 575
Further Reading……Page 576
Antecedents……Page 578
DSM-I (1952)……Page 579
DSM-III (1980)……Page 580
Inclusion of Five Diagnostic Axes……Page 581
Critical Positions……Page 582
Further Reading……Page 585
Introduction……Page 586
Understanding Culture as a Continuum……Page 587
Cross-Cultural Communication……Page 588
Diversity in Education……Page 589
See Also the Following Articles……Page 590
Further Reading……Page 591
Glossary……Page 592
Mergers, Acquisitions, and the Demise of Loyalty……Page 593
Effects of Downsizing on Knowledge-Based Organizations……Page 594
Roles of Procedural and Distributive Justice in Employment Downsizing……Page 595
Further Reading……Page 596
Glossary……Page 598
Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)……Page 599
Decision Making……Page 600
Educational Programs……Page 601
Further Reading……Page 602
Driving Safety as a Behavioral Target……Page 604
Speeding……Page 605
Safety Belt Nonuse……Page 606
Driving Safety among Older Drivers……Page 607
Driving Safety among Younger Drivers……Page 608
Further Reading……Page 609
Introduction……Page 610
Risk Factors and Causes of Drug Abuse……Page 611
Assessment of Drug Abuse……Page 612
See Also the Following Articles……Page 613
Further Reading……Page 614
Glossary……Page 615
Concept of Drug Dependence……Page 616
Primary Types of Drug Dependence……Page 617
Contingencies of Dependence……Page 618
Topography and Function of Drug Response Classes……Page 619
Effects of Titration on Drug Response Class……Page 620
Family Protectiveness……Page 621
Conclusion……Page 622
Further Reading……Page 623
Glossary……Page 624
Overview of Cultural Approaches to Teaching, Learning, and Achievement……Page 625
Cross-Cultural Differences in Mathematics Achievement……Page 626
Cultural Explanations for Cross-Ethnic Differences in Achievement in the United States……Page 627
Educational Effort……Page 628
Directions for Future Research on Cross-Cultural Achievement……Page 629
Further Reading……Page 630
Introduction……Page 631
Four Goals of Assessment……Page 632
Psychological Theories and Constructs in Assessing Children’s Achievements and Social Adaptation and Personality……Page 633
Modeling Individual Differences in Intelligence and Aptitudes……Page 634
Screening of Developmental Backwardness……Page 635
Personality and Temperament……Page 636
The Assessment Process in Children……Page 637
Case Study: an Example of Educational and Child Assessment……Page 638
Three Months Later……Page 639
Further Reading……Page 640
Introduction……Page 642
Planning for Content Coverage……Page 643
Using Effective Teaching Strategies……Page 644
Promoting Effective Inclusive Instruction……Page 645
Further Reading……Page 646
Glossary……Page 647
Sexual Abuse……Page 648
Perpetrator Characteristics……Page 649
Approach……Page 650
Assessment of Cognitive Status and Personality of the Patient……Page 651
Treatment and Management……Page 652
Ethical Issues……Page 653
Acknowledgments……Page 654
Further Reading……Page 655
Introduction……Page 656
Stressors of Caregiving: What Do Caregivers Do?……Page 657
Individual Differences in Reaction to Caregiving……Page 658
Biopsychosocial Impact of Caregiving……Page 660
Interventions for Caregivers……Page 662
Further Reading……Page 664
Introduction……Page 665
Social Functions of Emotion……Page 666
Anger……Page 667
Happiness……Page 668
Emotions and Health……Page 669
Emotions and Work……Page 671
Emotions in School……Page 672
Further Reading……Page 673
Conceptualizations of Child and Adolescent Psychopathology……Page 675
Behaviors, Symptoms, Syndromes, and Disorders……Page 676
Internalizing Disorders……Page 677
Academic Correlates of Internalizing Behaviors……Page 678
Externalizing Disorders……Page 679
Programmatic Interventions……Page 680
Externalizing Patterns……Page 681
Further Reading……Page 682
Glossary……Page 683
Physiological Response Patterns Research……Page 684
Universal Dimensions of Appraisal and Action Readiness……Page 685
Are Emotions Culture Specific?……Page 686
Antecedent Events……Page 687
Conclusion……Page 688
Further Reading……Page 689
Introduction……Page 690
Optimal……Page 691
Form Dimension……Page 692
Interindividual Variability……Page 693
Dynamics and Bidirectionality……Page 694
Individualized Assessments and Monitoring of Emotions……Page 695
Individualized Emotion Profiling……Page 696
Self-Generated Metaphors……Page 697
Narratives……Page 698
Practical Implications……Page 699
Conclusion……Page 700
Further Reading……Page 701
Glossary……Page 702
Basic Concepts in Employment Discrimination……Page 703
Role of Validity……Page 704
Validation……Page 705
Evidence Based on Content……Page 706
Evidence Based on Relationships with Other Variables……Page 707
Other Evidence-Related Issues……Page 708
Aging……Page 709
Individuals with Disabilities……Page 710
Sexual Harassment……Page 711
Further Reading……Page 712
Definition……Page 714
Methods for Enhancing the Structure of Interviews……Page 715
Validity……Page 716
Subgroup Differences……Page 717
Further Reading……Page 718
Glossary……Page 720
Predictors of Mortality……Page 721
Familial Caregiver Strain and Growth Potential……Page 722
Study to Understand Prognoses and Preferences for Outcomes and Risks of Treatments……Page 724
Meaning-Centered Group Interventions……Page 725
Ongoing Studies by the Authors……Page 726
Further Reading……Page 727
Historical Background……Page 728
The Human-Machine System as the Subject of Engineering Psychology……Page 729
Circulation of Information in Human-Machine Systems……Page 730
Cognition……Page 731
Decision Support Systems……Page 732
Human Reliability……Page 733
Cognitive Task Analysis and Knowledge Elicitation……Page 734
Development and Planning of Human-Machine Systems……Page 735
Future Developments……Page 736
Further Reading……Page 737
Physical and Architectural Features……Page 738
Behavior Settings……Page 739
Environmental Impacts……Page 740
See Also the Following Articles……Page 741
Further Reading……Page 742
Glossary……Page 743
Introduction……Page 744
Why Involve Others and Why Participate Oneself?……Page 746
Who Is the Public?……Page 747
How Does One Involve Others?……Page 748
Further Reading……Page 749
Glossary……Page 751
Environmental Psychology within and around the Psychological Tradition……Page 752
Environmental Psychology and Other Environmental Fields……Page 753
Spatial Behavior……Page 754
Environmental Stress and Restorative Environments……Page 756
Environmental Assessment……Page 757
Environmental Concern, Environmentally Friendly Behaviors, and Natural Resources……Page 759
Place-Specific Environmental Psychology……Page 761
The Future of Environmental Psychology……Page 763
Further Reading……Page 764
Glossary……Page 765
Spillover……Page 766
Cognitive Consequences……Page 767
Motivational Consequences……Page 768
Physiological Stress……Page 769
Coping Perseveration……Page 770
Conclusion……Page 771
Further Reading……Page 772
Glossary……Page 775
Different Levels of Risk……Page 776
Classical Decision Theory……Page 777
Estimation Heuristics……Page 779
External versus Internal Control……Page 780
Risk Homeostasis and Safety Regulation……Page 781
Emotional Significance of Risk……Page 782
Negative Meaning of Risk……Page 783
Multidimensionality of Risk……Page 784
Meaning and Feasibility of Risk Comparisons……Page 785
Risk as Low as Reasonably Achievable……Page 786
Macro and Micro Level Perspectives……Page 787
Precautionary Principle……Page 788
See Also the Following Articles……Page 789
Further Reading……Page 790
Glossary……Page 791
Science: Value Free or Value Bound?……Page 792
‘‘No-Go’’ or ‘‘Slow-Go’’ Decisions?……Page 793
Further Reading……Page 794
Glossary……Page 795
The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act……Page 796
Least Restrictive Environment……Page 797
Labeling and Classification of Exceptional Students……Page 798
Assessment of Exceptional Students……Page 799
Social Characteristics……Page 800
Further Reading……Page 801
What Is the Historical Context?……Page 803
Who Is an Effective Executive?……Page 804
Assessment Approaches……Page 805
Intervention Approaches……Page 806
Learning by Personal Experience with a Group……Page 807
Which Performance Areas Are More Amenable to Development?……Page 808
What Are the Hallmarks of Development Success and Failure?……Page 809
Further Reading……Page 810
Definitions……Page 811
Space Travel……Page 812
High Mountains……Page 813
Cold Regions……Page 815
Isolation: The Changing Extreme……Page 816
Further Reading……Page 817
Origins and Early Studies……Page 818
Psychophysiological Studies……Page 819
Emotional Disorders……Page 820
See Also the Following Articles……Page 821
Further Reading……Page 822
Glossary……Page 823
Categorization of Variables……Page 824
Distance from the Event/Perpetrator……Page 825
Witness Race, Gender, and Occupation……Page 826
Distinctiveness and Typicality of the Perpetrator……Page 827
Obtaining Information from the Witness……Page 828
Verbal Overshadowing……Page 829
Making and Utilizing Composite Portraits……Page 830
Lineup Instruction Effects……Page 831
Alternative Strategies: Blank Lineups, Sequential Lineups, and Relative Judgments……Page 832
The Prosecution……Page 833
Jurors’ ‘‘Common Knowledge’’ of Problems with Eyewitness Identification……Page 834
Further Reading……Page 835
Eyewitness Errors and Wrongful Convictions……Page 836
Creating New Memories……Page 837
Emotion and Memory……Page 838
Further Reading……Page 840
Section Editors……Page 4
Preface……Page 5