Encyclopedia of Physical Science and Technology – Optics (missing Acousto-optics)

Robert A. Meyers (Editor-in-Chief)

Nine years has passed since the 1992 second edition of the encyclopedia was published. This completely revised third edition, which is a university and professional level compendium of chemistry, molecular biology, mathematics, and engineering, is refreshed with numerous articles about current research in these fields. For example, the new edition has an increased emphasis on information processing and biotechnology, reflecting the rapid growth of these areas. The continuing Editor-in-Chief, Robert Meyers, and the Board prepared a new topical outline of physical science and technology to define complete coverage. Section editors are either Nobel Laureates or editors of key journals in their fields. Additional Board members representing the global scientific community were also recruited.

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Table of contents :
Glossary……Page 1
Introduction……Page 2
Round Lenses……Page 3
Quadrupoles……Page 7
Traditional Method……Page 8
Lie Methods……Page 11
Guns……Page 12
Magnetic Lenses……Page 13
Aberration Correction……Page 15
Prisms, Mirrors, and Energy Analyzers……Page 18
Wave Propagation……Page 20
Instrumental Optics: Microscopes……Page 22
Interference and Holography……Page 27
Digital Processing……Page 28
References……Page 29
Glossary……Page 31
The Generic Problem……Page 32
Operating Regimes……Page 33
Rigorous Coupled-Wave Analysis……Page 34
Transmittance Diffraction Theory……Page 36
Two-Wave Coupled-Wave Analysis……Page 37
Effective Medium Theory (EMT)……Page 39
Optical Interconnects……Page 41
Diffractive Lenses……Page 42
Antireflection (AR) Surfaces……Page 43
Polarization Devices……Page 44
Distributed-Index Devices……Page 45
Guided-Mode Resonance (GMR) Devices……Page 47
Laser Interference Recording……Page 48
An Example Process……Page 49
References……Page 50
Glossary……Page 51
Basic Principles……Page 52
Classification of Holograms……Page 55
Recording Materials……Page 57
Applications……Page 58
References……Page 62
Glossary……Page 63
Semiconductor Physics……Page 64
Device Physics……Page 67
Material Growth……Page 70
Chip Fabrication……Page 71
Reliability Issues……Page 72
Materials……Page 73
Applications……Page 74
Inorganic LED Materials……Page 75
Organic LED Materials……Page 77
System Uses……Page 78
See also the Following Articles……Page 79
References……Page 80
Glossary……Page 81
Thin Lenses……Page 82
Newton’s Form of the Lens Equation……Page 83
Lens Aberrations……Page 84
Diffraction……Page 86
Human Eye……Page 87
Camera……Page 89
Projection System……Page 90
Conventional Microscope……Page 91
Microscope Illuminators……Page 92
Scanning Confocal Microscope……Page 93
Near-Field Scanning Optical Microscope……Page 94
Terrestrial Telescope……Page 95
References……Page 96
Glossary……Page 97
Twisted Nematic……Page 98
Supertwisted Nematic……Page 101
Single-Polarizer Guest–Host Devices……Page 102
Megapixel Technologies……Page 103
Active Matrix……Page 104
Ferroelectric LCDs……Page 105
Smectic A and Cholesteric……Page 107
Fast Shutters……Page 108
Spatial Light Modulators……Page 109
Liquid Crystal Polymers……Page 110
References……Page 111
Glossary……Page 112
Basic Theory for Microoptics……Page 113
Guided-Wave Theory……Page 116
Microlens……Page 117
Multilayer Mirror and Filter……Page 118
Coupler……Page 119
Functional Components……Page 120
Imager……Page 121
Laser Disks……Page 122
Fiber Sensors……Page 123
Focusing Method……Page 124
Reflection Pattern……Page 125
Planar Microlens Array……Page 126
Design Rule of Stacked Planar Optics……Page 127
Applications of Stacked Planar Optics……Page 128
References……Page 131
Glossary……Page 132
Introduction……Page 133
Geometrical Vector Flux……Page 134
Tailored Edge-Ray Design Method for Nonimaging Concentrators……Page 135
Solar Thermal Application……Page 136
Two-Stage Maximally Concentrating Systems……Page 140
Applications……Page 143
Solar Processing of Materials……Page 144
Using Highly Concentrated Sunlight in Space……Page 145
References……Page 146
Glossary……Page 148
Optical Nonlinearities— Physical Origins……Page 149
Nonlinear Polarizations……Page 151
Classifications of Nonlinear Interactions……Page 152
Frequency–Conversion Processes……Page 153
Second-order effects…….Page 155
Second-harmonic generation…….Page 157
Three-wave sum–frequency mixing…….Page 162
Parametric down-conversion…….Page 163
Third- and higher-order processes…….Page 165
Stimulated Scattering Processes……Page 170
Stimulated Raman scattering…….Page 173
Stimulated Brillouin scattering…….Page 176
Spatial Effects……Page 177
Self-Defocusing……Page 179
Self-Phase Modulation……Page 180
Nonlinear Absorption……Page 182
Coherent Optical Effects……Page 183
Electrooptic and Magnetooptic Effects……Page 184
Nonlinear Spectroscopy……Page 185
Optical Phase Conjugation……Page 187
Optical Bistability……Page 191
References……Page 192
Glossary……Page 193
Structure of the Semiconductor Optical Amplifier……Page 194
Gain Mechanism……Page 195
Spectral Properties……Page 196
Facet Reflectivity……Page 197
Gain Compression……Page 199
Amplified Spontaneous Emission……Page 200
Signal-to-Noise Ratio and Noise Figure……Page 201
Carrier Lifetime……Page 203
Optical Modulation……Page 204
Optical Phase Modulation……Page 205
Four-Wave Mixing……Page 206
References……Page 208
Glossary……Page 210
Thermal Detectors……Page 211
Fundamental Limits to Electronic Detector Performance……Page 213
Quantum or Photon Limits……Page 214
Analog or Continuous Signal Mode……Page 215
Temporal Response……Page 216
Photomultiplier……Page 217
Photoconductor……Page 218
Reverse-Biased Diode……Page 219
Photovoltaic Mode……Page 220
Graph of Detector Characteristics……Page 221
Heterodyne Detection……Page 222
Optical Amplification……Page 223
Solid-State Arrays and the CCD……Page 224
References……Page 226
Glossary……Page 227
Fourier Optics……Page 228
Kirchhoff Formulation of the Diffraction by a Plane Screen……Page 229
Rotationally Invariant Fields and Airy Pattern……Page 230
Fields in the Focal Region of a Lens……Page 231
Field Near a Caustic……Page 232
Fock–Leontovich Parabolic Wave Equation……Page 233
Geometric Theory of Diffraction……Page 234
Diffraction Matrix……Page 235
Watson Transform……Page 236
Debye Series……Page 237
First Term of the Debye Expansion……Page 238
Coherent and Incoherent Diffraction Optics……Page 239
Optical Transfer Function……Page 240
Calculation of Diffraction Integrals by Expansion of the Field in Gaussian Beams……Page 241
References……Page 242
Glossary……Page 243
Faraday Effect……Page 244
Principle of Polarization-Dependent (Free Space) Optical Isolators……Page 245
Principle of Polarization-Independent (In-line) Optical Isolators……Page 246
Performance Evaluation of Optical Isolators……Page 248
Principle of Optical Circulators……Page 250
Principle of a Polarization-Independent Full Circulator……Page 252
Design and Principle of Compact Optical Circulators……Page 253
Reflective Design of Optical Isolators and Circulators……Page 255
References……Page 256
Glossary……Page 257
Waveguide Fabrication by Flame Hydrolysis Deposition……Page 258
N ×N Star Coupler……Page 259
Principle of Operation and Fundamental Characteristics……Page 260
Flat Spectral Response AWG……Page 261
Uniform-Loss and Cyclic-Frequency (ULCF) AWG……Page 262
Athermal AWG……Page 263
Phase Error Compensation of AWG……Page 265
Optical Add/Drop Multiplexer……Page 266
Lattice-Form Programmable Dispersion Equalizers……Page 267
Hybrid Integration Technology Using PLC Platforms……Page 269
References……Page 271
Glossary……Page 273
Image Capture……Page 274
Image Display……Page 275
AgX Crystals……Page 276
Gelatin……Page 277
Latent Image (LI) Formation……Page 278
Step-by-Step Mechanism……Page 279
Chemical Sensitization……Page 280
Spectral Sensitization Mechanisms……Page 281
Development……Page 282
Mechanisms……Page 283
Fine-Grain Development……Page 284
Obtaining a Positive……Page 285
Basic Principles……Page 286
Reversal Processes……Page 287
Further Details……Page 288
One-Step Black-and-White Photography……Page 289
The SX-70 System and Its Refinements……Page 290
Thermally Processed Silver Materials……Page 291
Processes……Page 292
Development……Page 293
Electronic Applications……Page 294
Resolution……Page 295
Image Capture Devices……Page 296
State-of-the-Art……Page 297
Electrophotography……Page 298
Transfer Xerography: Equipment and Processes……Page 299
Xerographic Materials……Page 302
Direct Xerography……Page 305
Color Xerography……Page 306
Electronic Paper……Page 307
Printer Types……Page 308
Materials……Page 309
Thermal Printing……Page 310
Transfer Thermography……Page 311
Laser Thermography……Page 312
References……Page 313
Introduction……Page 315
Photonic Bandgap (PBG) Formation……Page 317
Two-Dimensional PBG Materials……Page 319
Two-Dimensional Photonic Crystal Devices……Page 320
Synthesis of Three-Dimensional PBG Materials……Page 321
Layer-by-Layer Structures……Page 322
Quantum and Nonlinear Optics in Three-Dimensional PBG Materials……Page 323
Low-Threshold Resonant Nonlinear Optics……Page 324
Collective Switching and Transistor Effects……Page 325
Outlook……Page 326
References……Page 327