Sunggyu Lee, James G. Speight, Sudarshan K. Loyalka0824740696, 978-0-8247-4069-6
Table of contents :
HANDBOOK OF ALTERNATIVE FUEL TECHNOLOGIES……Page 2
Contents……Page 4
Preface……Page 6
Authors……Page 11
Contributors……Page 13
Table of Contents……Page 0
1.1 WORLD ENERGY CONSUMPTION……Page 14
1.2 U.S. ENERGY CONSUMPTION……Page 16
1.3 PETROLEUM……Page 18
1.4 NATURAL GAS……Page 23
1.5 COAL……Page 26
1.6 NUCLEAR ENERGY……Page 29
1.7 RENEWABLE ENERGY……Page 30
REFERENCES……Page 36
CONTENTS……Page 37
2.1 BACKGROUND……Page 38
2.2 SYNGAS CLASSIFICATION BASED ON ITS HEATING VALUE……Page 40
2.2.3 HIGH-BTU GAS……Page 41
2.3 COAL GASIFICATION REACTIONS……Page 42
2.3.1 STEAM GASIFICATION……Page 43
2.3.2 CARBON DIOXIDE GASIFICATION……Page 45
2.3.3 HYDROGASIFICATION……Page 46
2.3.4 PARTIAL OXIDATION……Page 47
2.3.5 WATER GAS SHIFT (WGS) REACTION……Page 48
2.4.1 CLASSIFICATION OF GASIFICATION PROCESSES……Page 50
2.4.2 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF COAL GASIFICATION AND ITS COMMERCIALIZATION……Page 51
2.4.3 GENERAL ASPECTS OF GASIFICATION……Page 52
2.4.4.1 Lurgi Gasification……Page 53
2.4.4.1.1 Lurgi Dry-Ash Gasifier……Page 54
2.4.4.2 Koppers-Totzek Gasification……Page 56
2.4.4.2.1 Koppers-Totzek Gasifier……Page 57
2.4.4.2.2 Features of the Koppers-Totzek Process……Page 58
2.4.4.2.3 Process Description of Koppers-Totzek Gasification……Page 59
2.4.4.3 Shell Gasification……Page 61
2.4.4.4 Texaco Gasification……Page 62
2.4.4.5 In Situ Gasification……Page 63
2.4.4.5.2 Underground Gasification System……Page 65
2.4.4.5.3 Methods for Underground Gasification……Page 67
2.4.4.5.4 Potential Problem Areas with In Situ Gasification……Page 68
2.4.4.6 Winkler Process……Page 69
2.4.4.6.2 Gasifier (Gas Generator)……Page 70
2.4.4.6.3 Features of the Winkler Process……Page 71
2.4.4.7 Wellman-Galusha Process……Page 73
2.4.4.8 The U-GAS Process……Page 74
2.4.4.9 Catalytic Coal Gasification……Page 76
2.4.4.10.1 Kellogg Molten Salt Process……Page 80
2.4.4.11 Plasma Gasification……Page 82
2.5 MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF COAL GASIFIERS……Page 84
REFERENCES……Page 88
CONTENTS……Page 92
3.2 COAL PYROLYSIS FOR LIQUID FUEL……Page 93
3.2.1 COED PROCESS……Page 94
3.2.2 TOSCOAL PROCESS……Page 96
3.2.3 LURGI–RUHRGAS PROCESS……Page 98
3.2.4 OCCIDENTAL FLASH PYROLYSIS PROCESS……Page 99
3.3 DIRECT LIQUEFACTION OF COAL……Page 100
3.3.2 H-COAL PROCESS……Page 103
3.3.3 SOLVENT REFINED COAL (SRC-I)……Page 105
3.3.4 EXXON DONOR SOLVENT (EDS) PROCESS……Page 107
3.3.6 NONINTEGRATED TWO-STAGE LIQUEFACTION (NTSL)……Page 108
3.3.7 THERMAL INTEGRATED TWO-STAGE LIQUEFACTION (ITSL)……Page 110
3.3.7.1 Lummus ITSL (1980–1984)……Page 111
3.3.7.2 Wilsonville ITSL (1982–1985)……Page 113
3.3.8 CATALYTIC TWO-STAGE LIQUEFACTION (CTSL)……Page 116
3.3.8.1 HRI’s CTSL Process……Page 117
3.3.8.2 Wilsonville CTSL……Page 118
3.4 INDIRECT LIQUEFACTION OF COAL……Page 119
3.4.1.1 Reaction Mechanism and Chemistry……Page 120
3.4.1.2 Fischer–Tropsch Catalysis……Page 123
3.4.1.3 Fischer–Tropsch Processes Other than SASOL……Page 124
3.4.2 CONVERSION OF SYNGAS TO METHANOL……Page 125
3.4.3 CONVERSION OF METHANOL TO GASOLINE OR TARGET HYDROCARBONS……Page 127
3.4.4 HIGHER ALCOHOL SYNTHESIS……Page 130
3.5 COAL AND OIL COPROCESSING……Page 131
REFERENCES……Page 132
4.1 INTRODUCTION……Page 135
4.2 COAL SLURRY CHARACTERIZATION……Page 137
4.2.1 PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION……Page 138
4.2.2 RHEOLOGY……Page 140
4.2.5 INTERPARTICLE INTERACTIONS……Page 142
4.3 COAL-WATER SLURRY……Page 147
4.4 COAL-OIL SLURRY……Page 149
4.5 ADVANCED TRANSPORTATION OF COAL SLURRY……Page 150
4.6 ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES……Page 153
4.7 COMBUSTION……Page 155
4.8 RECENT ADVANCES AND THE FUTURE……Page 157
REFERENCES……Page 158
5.1 INTRODUCTION……Page 163
5.3 COMPOSITION……Page 165
5.4 NATURAL GAS LIQUIDS……Page 166
5.5 CONVERSION OF NATURAL GAS TO LIQUIDS……Page 167
5.5.1 SYNGAS PRODUCTION……Page 168
5.5.2.1 General Process Description……Page 170
5.5.2.2 Chemistry……Page 171
5.5.2.5 Commercial Processes……Page 173
5.5.3 OTHER PROCESSES……Page 177
5.6 THE FUTURE……Page 179
REFERENCES……Page 180
CONTENTS……Page 181
6.1 INTRODUCTION……Page 182
6.2 RESID PRODUCTION……Page 185
6.3 PROPERTIES……Page 186
6.3.1 ELEMENTAL (ULTIMATE) ANALYSIS……Page 187
6.3.2 METALLIC CONTENT……Page 188
6.3.4 VISCOSITY……Page 189
6.3.5 CARBON RESIDUE……Page 190
6.3.7 MOLECULAR WEIGHT……Page 191
6.3.8 OTHER PROPERTIES……Page 192
6.4.1.1 Hydrocarbon Compounds……Page 193
6.4.1.3 Nitrogen Compounds……Page 194
6.4.2 FRACTIONATION……Page 195
6.4.2.1 Asphaltene Separation……Page 197
6.4.2.2 Fractionation of Deasphaltened Oil……Page 198
6.5 USE OF DATA……Page 199
6.6.2 COKING……Page 201
6.6.4 HYDROCONVERSION……Page 202
6.6.4.3 Dispersed Catalyst Processes……Page 203
6.6.6 FUTURE PROCESSES……Page 204
REFERENCES……Page 205
7.1 INTRODUCTION……Page 207
7.2 OCCURRENCE AND RESERVES……Page 210
7.3.1 ELEMENTAL (ULTIMATE) COMPOSITION……Page 212
7.3.2 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION……Page 213
7.3.5 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES……Page 214
7.4 BITUMEN RECOVERY……Page 215
7.5 LIQUID FUELS FROM OIL SAND……Page 217
7.5.1 COKING PROCESSES……Page 221
7.5.2 PRODUCT UPGRADING……Page 224
7.5.3 OTHER PROCESSES……Page 225
7.5.4 THE FUTURE……Page 227
REFERENCES……Page 231
CONTENTS……Page 232
8.1 OIL SHALE AS A SYNTHETIC FUEL (SYNFUEL) SOURCE……Page 234
8.2.1 TECHNOLOGICAL CONSTRAINTS……Page 239
8.2.2 ECONOMIC AND FINANCIAL CONSTRAINTS……Page 241
8.2.3 ENVIRONMENTAL AND ECOLOGICAL CONSTRAINTS……Page 242
8.2.3.5 Fugitive Dust Emission and Particulate Matter Control……Page 243
8.3 RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT NEEDS IN OIL SHALE……Page 244
8.3.2 CORRELATION OF PHYSICAL PROPERTIES……Page 245
8.3.5 CATALYTIC UPGRADING OF SHALE OIL CRUDES……Page 246
8.4 PROPERTIES OF OIL SHALE AND SHALE OIL……Page 247
8.4.1.2 Porosity……Page 248
8.4.1.3 Permeability……Page 249
8.4.1.4 Compressive Strength……Page 251
8.4.1.5 Thermal Properties……Page 252
8.4.1.5.1 Thermal Conductivity……Page 253
8.4.1.5.2 Heat Capacity of Oil Shale……Page 257
8.4.1.5.3 Enthalpy and Heat of Retorting……Page 258
8.4.1.5.5 Self-Ignition Temperature (SIT)……Page 259
8.4.2.1 Thermoanalytical Properties of Oil Shale……Page 262
8.4.2.2 Thermochemical Properties of Oil Shale Minerals……Page 264
8.4.3.1 Electric Resistivity……Page 266
8.4.3.2 Dielectric Constants……Page 267
8.4.4.1 Derivation of Stoichiometric Coefficient……Page 269
8.4.4.3 Nitrogen Compounds in Shale Oil……Page 271
8.4.5.1 Analytical Methods……Page 272
8.4.5.1.1 ASTM D2887 Procedure……Page 273
8.5 OIL SHALE EXTRACTION AND RETORTING PROCESSES……Page 274
8.5.1 EX SITU RETORTING PROCESSES……Page 276
8.5.1.1 U.S. Bureau of Mines’ Gas Combustion Retort……Page 277
8.5.1.2.1 Process Description……Page 278
8.5.1.2.3 Gaseous and Crude Shale Oil Product from TOSCO Process……Page 280
8.5.1.2.4 TOSCO Process Units……Page 281
8.5.1.2.5 Spent Shale Disposal……Page 282
8.5.1.3 The Union Oil Retorting Process……Page 283
8.5.1.4 The Lurgi-Ruhrgas Process……Page 285
8.5.1.5 Superior’s Multimineral Process……Page 286
8.5.1.6 The Paraho Gas Combustion Process……Page 287
8.5.1.7 Petrosix Retorting Process……Page 289
8.5.1.8 Chevron Retort System……Page 290
8.5.2 IN SITU RETORTING PROCESSES……Page 291
8.5.2.2 Equity Oil Co. Process……Page 294
8.5.2.3 Occidental Petroleum Process……Page 295
8.5.2.5 Dow Chemical Co.’s Process……Page 296
8.5.2.6 Talley Energy Systems Process……Page 297
8.5.2.8 Osborne’s In Situ Process……Page 298
8.5.2.9 Shell Oil’s Thermally Conductive In Situ Conversion Process……Page 299
8.5.3 SHALE OIL REFINING AND UPGRADING……Page 300
8.5.3.2 Moving Bed Hydroprocessing Reactor……Page 301
8.5.3.4 Hydrocracking Process……Page 302
REFERENCES……Page 303
9.1 INTRODUCTION……Page 306
9.2.1 CONVERSION OF SYNGAS TO METHANOL……Page 308
9.2.1.1 CO Hydrogenation as Principal Reaction for Synthesis of Methanol……Page 309
9.2.1.3.1 CO-Free Syngas Feed……Page 310
9.2.1.3.2 CO2-Free Syngas Feed Conditions……Page 311
9.2.1.3.3 H2O-Free Syngas Feed Conditions……Page 312
9.2.2 ACTIVE FORM OF METHANOL SYNTHESIS CATALYST……Page 313
9.2.3 CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM……Page 314
9.2.4 PROPERTIES OF METHANOL……Page 315
9.2.5 REACTION WITH METHANOL……Page 317
9.3 METHANOL SYNTHESIS TECHNOLOGY……Page 319
9.3.1 THE CONVENTIONAL ICI’S 100-ATM METHANOL SYNTHESIS PROCESS……Page 321
9.3.2 HALDOR TOPSOE A/S LOW-PRESSURE METHANOL SYNTHESIS PROCESS……Page 322
9.3.4 KRUPP UHDE’S METHANOL SYNTHESIS TECHNOLOGY……Page 324
9.3.5 LURGI ÖL-GAS-CHEMIE GMBH PROCESS……Page 325
9.3.6 SYNETIX LPM PROCESS……Page 326
9.3.7 LIQUID-PHASE METHANOL PROCESS……Page 328
REFERENCES……Page 329
10.1 FUEL ETHANOL FROM CORN……Page 331
10.2.1 INDUSTRIAL SIGNIFICANCES OF GRAIN ETHANOL……Page 334
10.2.2 CLEAN AIR ACT AMENDMENTS OF 1990……Page 335
10.2.3 ETHANOL PRODUCTION FROM CORN……Page 336
10.3.1 SUGAR CONTENTS OF BIOLOGICAL MATERIALS……Page 339
10.3.2 CONVERSION OF SUGARS TO ETHANOL……Page 340
10.4 CORN-TO-ETHANOL PROCESS TECHNOLOGY……Page 341
10.5 ETHANOL AS OXYGENATED FUEL……Page 344
10.6 ETHANOL VEHICLES……Page 346
10.7 USE OF ETHANOL OTHER THAN AS RENEWABLE FUEL……Page 348
REFERENCES……Page 349
CONTENTS……Page 350
11.1 INTRODUCTION……Page 351
11.1.2 MANUFACTURE OF INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL……Page 352
11.1.4 SUGARS……Page 353
11.1.5 STARCHES……Page 354
11.1.6 ALCOHOL WITHOUT POLLUTION……Page 355
11.1.7 CELLULOSIC MATERIALS……Page 356
11.2 CONVERSION OF AGRICULTURAL LIGNOCELLULOSIC FEEDSTOCKS……Page 357
11.2.1 ACID OR CHEMICAL HYDROLYSIS……Page 359
11.2.1.1 Process Description……Page 360
11.2.2 ENZYMATIC HYDROLYSIS……Page 361
11.3.1 PRETREATMENT……Page 362
11.3.1.2 Dilute Acid Prehydrolysis……Page 364
11.3.1.3 Organosolv Pretreatment……Page 365
11.3.1.4 Combined RASH and Organosolv Pretreatment……Page 366
11.3.2 ENZYME PRODUCTION AND INHIBITION……Page 367
11.3.3.1 Cellulase Adsorption……Page 368
11.3.3.2 Mechanism of Hydrolysis……Page 369
11.3.4.1 Separate Hydrolysis and Fermentation……Page 370
11.3.4.2 Simultaneous Saccharification and Fermentation……Page 371
11.3.4.3 Comparison between SSF and SHF Processes……Page 372
11.3.4.4 Xylose Fermentation……Page 373
11.4 LIGNIN CONVERSION……Page 374
11.6 ENERGY BALANCE FOR ETHANOL PRODUCTION FROM BIOMASS……Page 377
REFERENCES……Page 379
12.1 INTRODUCTION……Page 383
12.2.2 GASIFICATION……Page 387
12.2.3 LIQUEFACTION……Page 392
12.2.4 PYROLYSIS……Page 393
12.3 BIOLOGICAL CONVERSION: ANAEROBIC DIGESTION……Page 395
REFERENCES……Page 397
13.1 INTRODUCTION……Page 400
13.2.2 GASIFICATION OF MSW……Page 402
13.2.4 PYROLYSIS OF MSW……Page 403
13.3.1 INTRODUCTION……Page 407
13.3.2 MECHANICAL RECYCLING……Page 408
13.3.3.1 Pyrolysis……Page 409
13.3.3.2 Thermal Cracking……Page 410
13.3.3.3 Catalytic Cracking……Page 411
13.3.3.4 Degradative Extrusion……Page 413
13.4.2 PYROLYSIS OF SPENT TIRES……Page 414
13.4.2.1 Occidental Flash Pyrolysis……Page 415
13.4.2.3 Carbonization……Page 416
13.4.3 COCOMBUSTION OF SCRAP TIRES AND TDFS……Page 417
13.4.4 IFP SPENT TIRE DEPOLYMERIZATION PROCESS……Page 418
13.4.6 GOODYEAR’S DEVULCANIZATION PROCESS……Page 419
13.4.7 HYDROGENATION OF SPENT TIRE RUBBER……Page 420
REFERENCES……Page 421
CONTENTS……Page 425
14.2.1 NEED FOR GEOTHERMAL ENERGY……Page 426
14.2.3 OCCURRENCE OF GEOTHERMAL ENERGY……Page 427
14.2.4 ADVANTAGES OF GEOTHERMAL ENERGY……Page 429
14.2.5 GLOBAL GEOTHERMAL ENERGY……Page 430
14.3 HISTORY OF GEOTHERMAL ENERGY DEVELOPMENTS……Page 432
14.4.1 GEOTHERMAL POWER PLANTS……Page 434
14.4.1.2 Flash Steam Cycle……Page 435
14.4.1.3 Binary Cycle……Page 436
14.4.1.4 Hot Dry Rock (Dry Geothermal Sources) Systems……Page 437
14.4.1.5 Fresh Water Production……Page 438
14.4.2.1 Space and District Heating……Page 439
14.4.2.4 Industrial Process Heat……Page 440
14.4.3 GEOTHERMAL HEAT PUMPS……Page 441
14.5.1 MAJOR RESEARCH EFFORTS……Page 442
14.5.2.2 Brine-Handling Technology……Page 443
14.6 CONCLUSION……Page 444
REFERENCES……Page 445
15.1 NUCLEAR FISSION AND NUCLEAR REACTOR PHYSICS……Page 446
15.2 ELECTRICITY GENERATION FROM NUCLEAR REACTORS……Page 454
15.2.1 REACTOR CONTROL AND A TOY MODEL……Page 458
15.3 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE……Page 461
15.4 TYPES OF REACTORS……Page 465
15.4.1 ADVANCED REACTORS AND CONCEPTS……Page 470
15.5 PUBLIC CONCERNS OF SAFETY AND HEALTH……Page 478
15.5.1 NUCLEAR WEAPONS PROLIFERATION……Page 485
15.5.2 NUCLEAR WASTE DISPOSAL……Page 486
15.6 NUCLEAR FUSION……Page 487
REFERENCES……Page 492
CONTENTS……Page 495
16.2.2 OPERATION……Page 496
16.2.3.1 Heat Absorption from a Reservoir to Use for Operation……Page 498
16.2.4 CELL VOLTAGE……Page 499
16.3.1 GENERAL DESCRIPTION……Page 500
16.3.2 FUEL CELLS CLASSIFICATION……Page 501
16.4.1.1.1 Electrolyte……Page 504
16.4.1.1.2 Electrodes……Page 506
16.4.1.1.3 Teflon Masks and Current Collectors……Page 507
16.4.1.2 Operation Characteristics……Page 508
16.4.2 ALKALINE FUEL CELLS……Page 510
16.4.3 PHOSPHORIC ACID FUEL CELLS……Page 512
16.5.1 MOLTEN CARBONATE FUEL CELLS……Page 513
16.5.2 SOLID OXIDE FUEL CELLS……Page 514
16.6.1.1 Fossil Fuels……Page 516
16.6.2 HYDROGEN STORAGE……Page 518
16.7.2 COST……Page 520
16.7.3 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT……Page 521
16.8 RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT ISSUES……Page 522
REFERENCES……Page 523
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