Remote Sensing The Image Chain Approach

John R. Schott978-0-19-517817-3

Table of contents :
0195178173……Page 1
CONTENTS……Page 12
1.1 WHAT IS REMOTE SENSING (AS FAR AS WE’RE CONCERNED)?……Page 20
1.2 WHY REMOTE SENSING?……Page 21
1.3 WHAT KINDS OF REMOTE SENSING?……Page 24
1.4 THE IMAGE CHAIN APPROACH……Page 36
1.5 REFERENCES……Page 40
CHAPTER 2 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE AND PHOTO MENSURATION……Page 42
2.1 PHOTO INTERPRETATION……Page 43
2.2.1 Photogrammetry……Page 52
2.2.2 Camera as a Radiometer……Page 65
2.3 EVOLUTION OF EO SYSTEMS……Page 66
2.4 SPACE-BASED EO SYSTEMS……Page 68
2.5 DIGITAL CONCEPTS……Page 72
2.6 REFERENCES……Page 74
3.1 ENERGY PATHS……Page 76
3.1.1 Solar Energy Paths……Page 77
3.1.2 Thermal Energy Paths……Page 80
3.2.1 Definition of Terms……Page 82
3.2.2 Blackbody Radiators……Page 91
3.2.3 Polarization Concepts……Page 94
3.3.1 Inverse-Square Law for Irradiance from a Point Source……Page 99
3.3.2 Projected Area Effects (cos θ)……Page 102
3.3.3 Lambertian Surfaces……Page 104
3.3.4 Magic π……Page 105
3.3.5 Lens Falloff……Page 108
3.4.1 Atmospheric Absorption……Page 112
3.4.2 Atmospheric Scattering……Page 118
3.5 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE EM SPECTRUM……Page 123
3.6 REFERENCES……Page 127
CHAPTER 4 THE GOVERNING EQUATION FOR RADIANCE REACHING THE SENSOR……Page 130
4.1.1 Solar Irradiance……Page 131
4.1.2 Downwelled Radiance (Skylight)……Page 133
4.2.1 Ways to Characterize Reflectance……Page 140
4.2.2 Reflected Solar Radiance……Page 144
4.3 SOLAR RADIANCE REACHING THE SENSOR……Page 146
4.3.1 Solar Scattered Upwelled Radiance (Path Radiance)……Page 147
4.3.2 Cumulative Solar Effects……Page 149
4.3.3 Multiple Scattering and Nonlinearity Effects……Page 150
4.4.1 Self-Emission……Page 153
4.4.2 Thermal Emission from the Sky and Background Reflected to the Sensor……Page 154
4.4.3 Self-Emitted Component of Upwelled Radiance……Page 158
4.5 INCORPORATION OF SENSOR SPECTRAL RESPONSE……Page 160
4.6.1 Simplification……Page 161
4.6.2 Sensitivity Analysis—Error Propagation……Page 167
4.7 REFERENCES……Page 170
CHAPTER 5 SENSING SYSTEMS……Page 172
5.1.1 Irradiance onto the Focal Plane……Page 173
5.1.2 Sensitometric Analysis……Page 176
5.2.1 Optics and Irradiance at the Focal Plane……Page 184
5.2.2 System Characterization……Page 186
5.3.1 Detector Types……Page 188
5.3.2 Detector Figures of Merit……Page 192
5.3.3 Sensor Performance Parameters……Page 198
5.4 DETECTOR-SENSOR PERFORMANCE CALCULATIONS……Page 199
5.5 REFERENCES……Page 210
6.1 SINGLE-CHANNEL AND MULTISPECTRAL SENSORS……Page 212
6.1.1 Line Scanners……Page 213
6.1.2 Whisk-Broom and Bow-Tie Imagers……Page 219
6.1.3 Push-Broom Sensors……Page 226
6.1.4 Framing (2-D) Arrays……Page 230
6.2 IMAGING SPECTROMETERS……Page 231
6.2.1 Imaging Spectrometer Issues……Page 242
6.3 LUMINESCENCE SENSORS……Page 246
6.4 CALIBRATION ISSUES……Page 252
6.5 SENSOR CASE STUDY……Page 265
6.6 REFERENCES……Page 274
CHAPTER 7 ATMOSPHERIC COMPENSATION: SOLUTIONS TO THE GOVERNING EQUATION……Page 278
7.1 TRADITIONAL APPROACH: CORRELATION WITH GROUND-BASED MEASUREMENTS……Page 280
7.2 APPROACHES TO ATMOSPHERIC COMPENSATION……Page 282
7.3.1 Ground Truth Methods (Temperature)……Page 284
7.3.2 In-Scene Compensation Techniques (Temperature)……Page 286
7.3.3 Atmospheric Propagation Models (Temperature)……Page 309
7.3.4 Emissivity……Page 314
7.4.1 Ground Truth Methods (Reflectance), a.k.a. Empirical Line Method (ELM)……Page 315
7.4.2 In-Scene Methods (Reflectance)……Page 319
7.4.3 Atmospheric Propagation Models (Reflectance)……Page 326
7.5.1 Spectral Ratio Techniques……Page 345
7.5.2 Scene-to-Scene Normalization……Page 347
7.6 COMPENSATION OF IMAGING SPECTROMETER DATA FOR ATMOSPHERIC EFFECTS……Page 350
7.6.1 Inversion to Reflectance……Page 352
7.6.2 Spectral Polishing……Page 357
7.7 SUMMARY OF ATMOSPHERIC COMPENSATION ISSUES……Page 359
7.8 REFERENCES……Page 361
CHAPTER 8 DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING PRINCIPLES……Page 368
8.1 POINT PROCESSING……Page 371
8.2 NEIGHBORHOOD OPERATIONS-KERNEL ALGEBRA……Page 377
8.3 STRUCTURE OR TEXTURE MEASURES……Page 382
8.4 GLOBAL OPERATIONS……Page 387
8.5 IMAGE RESTORATION……Page 395
8.6 REFERENCES……Page 403
CHAPTER 9 MULTISPECTRAL REMOTE SENSING ALGORITHMS: LAND COVER CLASSIFICATION……Page 406
9.1.1 Vector Algebra……Page 407
9.1.2 Matrix Algebra……Page 410
9.1.3 Eigenvectors and Singular Value Decomposition (SVD)……Page 412
9.2.1 Supervised Classification of a Single-Band Image……Page 416
9.2.2 Supervised Multispectral Image Classification……Page 423
9.2.3 Unsupervised Multivariate Classifier……Page 431
9.2.4 Multivariate Classification Using Texture Metrics……Page 433
9.2.5 Evaluation of Class Maps……Page 434
9.3 IMAGE TRANSFORMS……Page 440
9.5 REFERENCES……Page 446
CHAPTER 10 SPECTROSCOPIC IMAGE ANALYSIS……Page 448
10.1.1 The Geometric or Deterministic Perspective……Page 449
10.1.2 The Statistical Perspective……Page 450
10.2.1 Dimensionality Reduction……Page 451
10.2.2 Noise Characterization: Noise versus Clutter……Page 455
10.2.3 Noise-Sensitive Dimensionality Reduction……Page 457
10.2.4 Estimation of the Dimensionality of a Data Set……Page 459
10.3 GEOMETRIC OR DETERMINISTIC APPROACHES TO SPECTRAL IMAGE ANALYSIS……Page 461
10.3.1 End Member Selection……Page 462
10.3.2 Detection and Mapping Algorithms Using the Geometric or Structured Perspective……Page 468
10.3.3 Linear Mixture Models and Fraction Maps……Page 473
10.4.1 Estimation of Relevant Statistical Parameters……Page 480
10.4.2 Target Detection Using Statistical Characterization of the Image……Page 483
10.5 SPECTRAL FEATURE APPROACHES TO SPECTRAL IMAGE ANALYSIS……Page 496
10.6 HYBRID APPROACHES TO SPECTRAL IMAGE ANALYSIS……Page 500
10.7 REFERENCES……Page 512
CHAPTER 11 USE OF PHYSICS-BASED MODELS TO SUPPORT SPECTRAL IMAGE ANALYSIS ALGORITHMS……Page 516
11.1 SPECTRAL THERMAL INFRARED ANALYSIS METHODS……Page 517
11.2 MODEL MATCHING USING RADIATIVE TRANSFER MODELS……Page 526
11.2.1 Model Matching Applied to Atmospheric Compensation……Page 527
11.2.2 Model Matching Applied to Water-Quality Parameter Retrieval……Page 529
11.3 STATISTICAL INVERSION OF PHYSICAL MODELS……Page 538
11.4 INCORPORATION OF PHYSICS-BASED MODELS INTO SPECTRAL ALGORITHM TRAINING……Page 545
11.5 INCORPORATION OF PHYSICS-BASED SPATIAL SPECTRAL MODELS INTO ALGORITHM TRAINING……Page 556
11.6 REFERENCES……Page 557
12.1 IMAGE DISPLAY……Page 560
12.2 THEMATIC AND DERIVED INFORMATION……Page 568
12.3.1 GIS Concepts……Page 569
12.3.2 Databases and Models……Page 582
12.4 IMAGE FUSION……Page 584
12.6 REFERENCES……Page 590
CHAPTER 13 WEAK LINKS IN THE CHAIN……Page 592
13.1.1 Spatial Image Fidelity Metrics……Page 593
13.1.2 System MTF……Page 599
13.1.3 Measurement of, and Correction for, MTF Effects……Page 618
13.2 RADIOMETRIC EFFECTS……Page 626
13.2.1 Noise……Page 627
13.2.2 Noise Artifacts……Page 629
13.2.3 Approaches for Correction of Noise and Periodic Structure in Images……Page 630
13.3 SPECTRAL AND POLARIZATION EFFECTS……Page 632
13.3.1 Feature/Spectral Band Selection……Page 634
13.3.2 Polarization Issues……Page 636
13.4 SPATIAL, SPECTRAL, AND RADIOMETRIC TRADEOFFS……Page 639
13.5 IMAGE-QUALITY METRICS……Page 640
13.6 SUMMARY OF IMAGE CHAIN CONCEPTS……Page 645
13.7 REFERENCES……Page 648
14.1 SIMULATION ISSUES……Page 652
14.2.1 Physical Models……Page 655
14.2.2 Fully Computerized Models……Page 657
14.3 A MODELING EXAMPLE……Page 661
14.4 APPLICATION OF SIG MODELS……Page 670
14.5 SIG MODELING AND THE IMAGE CHAIN APPROACH……Page 681
14.6 REFERENCES……Page 682
APPENDIX A: BLACKBODY CALCULATIONS……Page 684
B……Page 692
C……Page 693
E……Page 694
H……Page 695
K……Page 696
M……Page 697
P……Page 698
S……Page 699
T……Page 700
Z……Page 701