Richard Helmer,Ivanildo Hespanhol,United Nations Environment Programme.,Water Supply and Sanitation Collaborative Council.,World Health Organization.0203477545, 9780203477540, 0419229108, 9780419229100
Table of contents :
Water Pollution Control……Page 3
TABLE OF CONTENTS……Page 5
FOREWORD……Page 11
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS……Page 13
1.2 Policy framework……Page 17
Table of Contents……Page 0
1.2.1 The policy document……Page 18
1.3 Guiding principles for water pollution control……Page 19
1.4 Strategy formulation……Page 24
1.5 References……Page 25
2.1 Introduction……Page 26
2.2. Why water quality criteria and objectives?……Page 27
2.3.1 Development of criteria……Page 30
2.3.2 Raw water used for drinking-water supply……Page 33
2.3.3 Irrigation……Page 34
2.3.4 Livestock watering……Page 35
2.3.5 Recreational use……Page 36
2.3.7 Protection of aquatic life……Page 37
2.3.9 Suspended participate matter and sediment……Page 39
2.4 Water quality objectives……Page 40
2.4.1 Water quality classification schemes……Page 44
2.4.3 The ecosystem approach……Page 47
2.4.4 Implementation and monitoring compliance……Page 52
2.5 Conclusions and recommendations……Page 54
2.6 References……Page 55
3.1 Integrating waste and water management……Page 59
3.2.1 Wastewater flows……Page 61
3.2.2 Wastewater composition……Page 63
3.3.2 Sanitation solutions for domestic sewage……Page 65
3.3.3 Level of wastewater treatment……Page 67
3.3.5 Selection criteria……Page 70
3.4 Pollution prevention and minimisation……Page 74
3.5.1 Storm water drainage……Page 77
3.5.2 Separate and combined sewerage……Page 78
3.6 Costs, operation and maintenance……Page 80
3.7.1 On-site sanitation technologies……Page 82
3.7.2 On-site versus off-site options……Page 83
3.7.3 Off-site centralised treatment technologies……Page 85
3.8 Conclusions and recommendations……Page 96
3.9 References……Page 98
4.1 Introduction……Page 100
4.2.2 Urban……Page 101
4.2.3 Industry……Page 102
4.3 Implementing or upgrading agricultural reuse systems……Page 103
4.3.1 Policy and planning……Page 105
4.3.2 Legal and regulatory issues……Page 109
4.3.3 Institutional arrangements……Page 112
4.3.4 Economic and financial aspects……Page 114
4.3.5 Socio-cultural aspects……Page 116
4.3.6 Monitoring and evaluation……Page 117
4.4.1 Wastewater treatment……Page 118
4.4.2 Crop selection……Page 124
4.4.3 Irrigation techniques……Page 126
4.4.5 Integrated measures for health protection……Page 129
4.5 Conclusions and recommendations……Page 132
4.6 References……Page 133
5.1 Introduction……Page 137
5.2 Inventories for pollution control……Page 138
5.2.1 Substance inventories……Page 139
5.2.2 Environmental risk assessment……Page 141
5.3 Derivation of standards for point sources……Page 143
5.3.1 Water quality objectives……Page 144
5.3.2 Environmental quality standards……Page 145
5.3.3 Limit value or uniform emission standards……Page 147
5.4.1 Permits……Page 148
5.4.2 End-of-pipe controls……Page 149
5.4.4 Process-based controls……Page 151
5.4.5 Public participation……Page 153
5.4.6 Waste minimisation and cleaner technology……Page 154
5.4.8 Enforcement mechanisms……Page 155
5.4.9 Compliance assessment……Page 157
5.5.1 Identification of sources……Page 158
5.5.2 Agricultural sources……Page 159
5.5.3 Urban sources……Page 163
5.5.4 Catchment management planning……Page 166
5.5.5 Laws and regulations……Page 167
5.6 Groundwater protection……Page 168
5.7 Transboundary pollution……Page 170
5.9 References……Page 172
6.2 Why use economic instruments?……Page 175
6.3 Applying economic instruments……Page 179
6.3.2 Effluent charges……Page 180
6.3.3 User charges……Page 188
6.3.5 Marketable permits……Page 190
6.3.6 Subsidies……Page 191
6.3.7 Deposit-refund system……Page 194
6.4 Choosing between instruments……Page 195
6.4.2 Administrative and financial feasibility……Page 196
6.4.5 Transparency……Page 197
6.5 Application in developing countries……Page 198
6.7 References……Page 200
7.2 The challenges of urban sanitation……Page 203
7.2.1 Basic sanitation services for urban households……Page 204
7.2.2 Urban wastewater management and pollution control……Page 206
7.2.3 Connection between sanitation services and environmental issues……Page 207
7.3 The financial challenges……Page 208
7.3.2 Sanitation, sewerage and wastewater management……Page 209
7.3.3 Community participation……Page 218
7.3.4 A role for the private sector……Page 221
7.4 Strategic planning and policies for sustainable sanitation services……Page 222
7.4.1 Cost-effective technologies……Page 224
7.4.2 Conservation and reuse of scarce resources……Page 225
7.5 Conclusions……Page 226
7.6 References……Page 227
8.1 Introduction……Page 231
8.2 The water pollution control sub-sector……Page 232
8.3 Institutions and organisations……Page 233
8.4.1 Prioritising functions and setting mandates of organisations……Page 235
8.4.2 Scale and scope of organisations and decentralisation……Page 238
8.4.3 Deregulation and regulation and enterprise autonomy……Page 239
8.5.1 England and Wales……Page 242
8.5.3 Germany……Page 244
8.5.4 The Netherlands……Page 245
8.5.6 India……Page 246
8.5.7 South Korea: towards institutions for sustainable management……Page 250
8.5.8 Sri Lanka: turning an organisation around……Page 251
8.6 Capacity building……Page 252
8.7 Conclusions……Page 253
8.8 References……Page 254
9.1 Introduction……Page 256
9.2 The importance of integration……Page 257
9.3 Specifying information needs……Page 261
9.4.1 System organisation and information flow……Page 265
9.4.2 Data acquisition……Page 267
9.4.3 Data handling……Page 268
9.5.1 Graphical information……Page 269
9.5.2 Statistical information……Page 270
9.5.3 Water quality indices and classes……Page 271
9.5.4 Models……Page 272
9.5.6 Environmental management support systems……Page 274
9.6 Design of monitoring networks and selection of variables……Page 275
9.7.1 Source monitoring……Page 278
9.7.2 Particulate matter sampling and biological monitoring……Page 279
9.7.4 Automation of monitoring and information systems……Page 280
9.8 References……Page 282
10.1.1 Background: Agenda 21……Page 286
10.1.2 Scope of guidelines……Page 287
10.2.1 Identification of water quality problems……Page 288
10.2.3 Prioritisation of water quality problems……Page 290
10.3 Establishing objectives for water pollution control……Page 291
10.3.1 Required management interventions……Page 292
10.3.2 Long-term objectives……Page 293
10.3.4 Short-term strategy……Page 294
10.4 Management tools and instruments……Page 296
10.4.2 Water quality standards……Page 297
10.4.3 Economic instruments……Page 299
10.4.4 Monitoring systems……Page 300
10.4.5 Water quality modelling tools……Page 302
10.4.6 Environmental impact assessment and cross-sectoral co-ordination……Page 303
10.4.7 Principles for selecting and combining management tools……Page 305
10.5.1 Components of and processes within an action plan……Page 308
10.5.2 Implementation, monitoring and updating of the action plan……Page 310
10.6 References……Page 311
I.2 The Ganga river……Page 313
I.2.1 Exploitation……Page 315
I.3.1 Scientific awareness……Page 316
I.3.2 Attainable objectives……Page 318
I.3.3 The strategy……Page 319
I.4 Implementation problems……Page 323
I.7 Conclusions and lessons learned……Page 324
I.9 Source literature……Page 326
II.2.1 Urban, social and economic profile……Page 327
II.2.2 Water resources……Page 329
II.2.3 Water pollution in the Huangpu River basin……Page 331
II.3.1 Environmental regulations and organisations……Page 332
II.3.2 Old and new pollution control measures……Page 333
II.3.3 Sources of finance……Page 334
II.3.4 Accomplishments and limitations……Page 336
II.4 Pollution control strategy for the Huangpu River……Page 338
II.4.1 Moving water supply intake upstream of the Huangpu River Project……Page 339
II.4.2 Shanghai sewerage collection and wastewater treatment project……Page 342
II.5 Other major measures used in cleaning the Huangpu River……Page 347
II.6 Conclusions……Page 349
II.7 References……Page 350
III.1 Country profile……Page 351
III.2 Basin identification……Page 352
III.3.1 Pollution sources……Page 354
III.3.2 Increasing urban migration and economic difficulties……Page 355
III.3.5 Diminished use of the river……Page 356
III.3.6 Previous programmes on the Pasig River……Page 357
III.4.1 Objectives, strategies and targets……Page 358
III.4.2 Activities and strategies……Page 359
III.4.4 Present structure……Page 363
III.4.5 Major accomplishments in the first year……Page 366
III.5 Lessons learned, constraints and opportunities……Page 367
III.6 Conclusions and recommendations……Page 369
IV.1.1 Water resources……Page 371
IV.1.2 Water pollution……Page 373
IV.2.2 The National Policy on Environment……Page 375
IV.2.3 Establishment of environmental monitoring programmes……Page 376
IV.3 Water resources management……Page 378
IV.3.1 Strategies under the National Policy on Environment……Page 379
IV.4 Industrial water pollution control programme……Page 380
IV.4.1 Industrial effluent standards……Page 381
IV.5 Conclusions……Page 383
IV.6 References……Page 384
V.2 Background information……Page 385
V.3 The Witbank Dam catchment……Page 387
V.4.1 The strategy……Page 388
V.5 Intervention with a new approach……Page 389
V.5.1 Catchment water quality management plan……Page 390
V.5.2 Prevention and minimisation of pollution……Page 393
V.6 Shortcomings of the approach……Page 395
V.8 References……Page 396
VI.2 The metropolitan region of São Paulo……Page 397
VI.3 Pre-intervention situation……Page 399
VI.4 The Tietê Project……Page 400
VI.5 Industrial wastewater management……Page 401
VI.7 References……Page 406
VII.1 Introduction……Page 407
VII.2 The Mezquital Valley……Page 408
VII.3 Pre-intervention situation……Page 411
VII.4 Intervention scenario……Page 414
VII.6 Conclusions and recommendations……Page 416
VII.7 References……Page 417
VIII.1 Introduction……Page 419
VIII.2 The Lerma-Chapala basin……Page 420
VIII.3 Pre-intervention situation……Page 422
VIII.4 Intervention scenario……Page 425
VIII.5 Conclusions and lessons for the future……Page 432
VIII.6 Final reflections……Page 433
IX.1 Introduction……Page 435
IX.2 Economic activities in the basin……Page 436
IX.3 The Environmental Programme for the Danube river basin……Page 441
IX.4 The strategic action plan……Page 442
IX.5 Problems and priorities……Page 443
IX.6 Strategic directions……Page 446
IX.8 References……Page 450
X.2 Description of the region……Page 451
X.3 Water systems……Page 453
X.4 Water resources assessment……Page 457
X.5 Pollution sources……Page 459
X.6 Major problems……Page 460
X.7.1 Programme objectives and scope of activities……Page 461
X.7.2 Implementation and estimated cost and efficiency……Page 462
X.8 International co-operation……Page 463
X.10 References……Page 465
XI.2.1 Surface waters……Page 467
XI.2.2 Groundwater……Page 469
XI.3.1 Conservation and control measures……Page 470
XI.3.2 Groundwater recharge……Page 471
XI.4 Direct use of treated wastewater for irrigation……Page 472
XI.5 Pollution of water resources……Page 473
XI.7 References……Page 477
XII.2 General information on Jordan and Greater Amman……Page 479
XII.3 Wastewaters and water pollution control……Page 481
XII.4 Existing major wastewater management problems and needs……Page 482
XII.5 Management solution alternatives……Page 486
XII.6 Recommendations and possible results……Page 490
XII.7 References……Page 491
XIII.1 Introduction……Page 492
XIII.1.1 Structure of the water sector……Page 493
XIII.1.2 Legislative framework……Page 494
XIII.2.1 Water resources……Page 495
XIII.2.2 Water use……Page 496
XIII.2.3 Sources of groundwater pollution……Page 497
XIII.2.4 Water and wastewater in Sana’a city……Page 498
XIII.3 Planned interventions……Page 502
XIII.4 Lessons learned and conclusions……Page 503
XIII.5 References……Page 504
Appendix: PARTICIPANTS IN THE WORKING GROUP……Page 506
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