Environmental Chemistry

Manahan S.E.

Table of contents :
PREFACE TO THE SEVENTH EDITION……Page 4
Author……Page 6
CONTENTS……Page 7
The Environment……Page 15
Environmental Chemistry and the Environmental Chemist……Page 17
Environmental Biochemistry……Page 18
Air and the Atmosphere……Page 19
Life……Page 20
The Biosphere……Page 21
Ecology……Page 22
1.5. ENERGY AND CYCLES OF ENERGY……Page 23
Light and Electromagnetic Radiation……Page 24
1.6. MATTER AND CYCLES OF MATTER……Page 25
Endogenic and Exogenic Cycles……Page 27
Carbon Cycle……Page 28
The Nitrogen Cycle……Page 30
The Oxygen Cycle……Page 31
The Phosphorus Cycle……Page 32
The Sulfur Cycle……Page 33
Some Definitions Pertaining to Pollution……Page 34
1.8. TECHNOLOGY: THE PROBLEMS IT POSES AND THE SOLUTIONS IT OFFERS……Page 35
SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES……Page 37
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS……Page 39
Components of the Anthrosphere……Page 41
2.2. TECHNOLOGY AND THE ANTHROSPHERE……Page 42
Engineering……Page 43
2.3. INFRASTRUCTURE……Page 44
2.4. DWELLINGS……Page 46
2.5. TRANSPORTATION……Page 48
2.7. FOOD AND AGRICULTURE……Page 49
Automation……Page 51
Robotics……Page 52
Computers……Page 53
2.9. EFFECTS OF THE ANTHROSPHERE ON EARTH……Page 54
2.10. INTEGRATION OF THE ANTHROSPHERE INTO THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT……Page 55
2.11. THE ANTHROSPHERE AND INDUSTRIAL ECOLOGY……Page 57
Industrial Ecosystems……Page 58
Industrial Applications of Industrial Ecology……Page 60
Scenario Creation to Avoid Environmental Problems……Page 61
2.12. ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY……Page 62
SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES……Page 65
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS……Page 66
3.1. WATER QUALITY AND QUANTITY……Page 71
Sources and Uses of Water: The Hydrologic Cycle……Page 72
The Water Molecule……Page 75
3.3. THE CHARACTERISTICS OF BODIES OF WATER……Page 77
3.4. AQUATIC LIFE……Page 78
3.5. INTRODUCTION TO AQUATIC CHEMISTRY……Page 79
3.6. GASES IN WATER……Page 80
Oxygen in Water……Page 81
3.7. WATER ACIDITY AND CARBON DIOXIDE IN WATER……Page 82
Carbon Dioxide in Water……Page 83
3.8. ALKALINITY……Page 86
Contributors to Alkalinity at Different pH Values……Page 87
Dissolved Inorganic Carbon and Alkalinity……Page 88
3.9. CALCIUM AND OTHER METALS IN WATER……Page 89
Hydrated Metal Ions as Acids……Page 90
Calcium in Water……Page 91
Dissolved Carbon Dioxide and Calcium Carbonate Minerals……Page 92
3.10. COMPLEXATION AND CHELATION……Page 93
Occurrence and Importance of Chelating Agents in Water……Page 95
Selectivity and Specificity in Chelation……Page 96
3.12. CALCULATIONS OF SPECIES CONCENTRATIONS……Page 97
3.13. COMPLEXATION BY DEPROTONATED LIGANDS……Page 98
3.14. COMPLEXATION BY PROTONATED LIGANDS……Page 99
3.15. SOLUBILIZATION OF LEAD ION FROM SOLIDS BY NTA……Page 101
Reaction of NTA with Metal Carbonate……Page 102
Effect of Calcium Ion upon the Reaction of Chelating Agents with Slightly Soluble Salts……Page 103
3.16. POLYPHOSPHATES IN WATER……Page 105
3.17. COMPLEXATION BY HUMIC SUBSTANCES……Page 107
LITERATURE CITED……Page 109
SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES……Page 110
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS……Page 111
4.1. THE SIGNIFICANCE OF OXIDATION-REDUCTION……Page 115
4.2. THE ELECTRON AND REDOX REACTIONS……Page 117
4.3. ELECTRON ACTIVITY AND pE……Page 119
4.4. THE NERNST EQUATION……Page 121
4.5. REACTION TENDENCY: WHOLE REACTION FROM HALF-REACTIONS……Page 122
4.6. THE NERNST EQUATION AND CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM……Page 123
4.8. REACTIONS IN TERMS OF ONE ELECTRON-MOLE……Page 124
4.9. THE LIMITS OF pE IN WATER……Page 126
4.10. pE VALUES IN NATURAL WATER SYSTEMS……Page 128
4.11. pE-pH DIAGRAMS……Page 129
LITERATURE CITED……Page 133
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS……Page 134
5.1. CHEMICAL INTERACTIONS INVOLVING SOLIDS, GASES, AND WATER……Page 136
Formation of Sediments……Page 137
Solubilities of Solids……Page 139
Solubilities of Gases……Page 141
Occurrence of Colloids in Water……Page 142
Kinds of Colloidal Particles……Page 143
Colloid Stability……Page 144
5.5. THE COLLOIDAL PROPERTIES OF CLAYS……Page 146
5.6. AGGREGATION OF PARTICLES……Page 147
Flocculation of Bacteria by Polymeric Materials……Page 148
5.7. SURFACE SORPTION BY SOLIDS……Page 149
5.8. ION EXCHANGE WITH BOTTOM SEDIMENTS……Page 151
Trace-Level Metals in Suspended Matter and Sediments……Page 152
Phosphorus Exchange with Bottom Sediments……Page 153
Organic Compounds on Sediments and Suspended Matter……Page 154
LITERATURE CITED……Page 157
SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES……Page 158
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS……Page 159
6.1. AQUATIC BIOCHEMICAL PROCESSES……Page 161
6.2. ALGAE……Page 163
6.4. PROTOZOA……Page 165
6.5. BACTERIA……Page 166
Autotrophic and Heterotrophic Bacteria……Page 167
6.6. THE PROKARYOTIC BACTERIAL CELL……Page 168
6.7. KINETICS OF BACTERIAL GROWTH……Page 169
6.8. BACTERIAL METABOLISM……Page 170
Factors Affecting Bacterial Metabolism……Page 171
6.9. MICROBIAL TRANSFORMATIONS OF CARBON……Page 173
Methane-Forming Bacteria……Page 175
Oxidation……Page 177
Other Biochemical Processes……Page 180
Nitrogen Fixation……Page 182
Nitrification……Page 183
Denitrification……Page 185
Competitive Oxidation of Organic Matter by Nitrate Ion and Other Oxidizing Agents……Page 186
Phosphorus Compounds……Page 187
Sulfur Compounds……Page 188
Microorganism-Mediated Degradation of Organic Sulfur Compounds……Page 189
6.13. MICROBIAL TRANSFORMATIONS OF HALOGENS AND ORGANOHALIDES……Page 190
6.14. MICROBIAL TRANSFORMATIONS OF METALS AND METALLOIDS……Page 191
Acid Mine Waters……Page 193
6.15. MICROBIAL CORROSION……Page 194
LITERATURE CITED……Page 195
SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES……Page 196
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS……Page 197
7.1. NATURE AND TYPES OF WATER POLLUTANTS……Page 200
7.2. ELEMENTAL POLLUTANTS……Page 202
Cadmium……Page 203
Mercury……Page 204
7.4. METALLOIDS……Page 206
7.5. ORGANICALLY BOUND METALS AND METALLOIDS……Page 207
Organotin Compounds……Page 208
7.6. INORGANIC SPECIES……Page 209
Ammonia and Other Inorganic Pollutants……Page 210
7.7. ALGAL NUTRIENTS AND EUTROPHICATION……Page 211
7.8. ACIDITY, ALKALINITY, AND SALINITY……Page 213
7.9. OXYGEN, OXIDANTS, AND REDUCTANTS……Page 214
Sewage……Page 215
Soaps……Page 217
Detergents……Page 218
Biorefractory Organic Pollutants……Page 219
Naturally Occurring Chlorinated and Brominated Compounds……Page 220
Natural Product Insecticides, Pyrethrins, and Pyrethroids……Page 221
DDT and Organochlorine Insecticides……Page 222
Organophosphate Insecticides……Page 223
Carbamates……Page 224
Bipyridilium Compounds……Page 225
Chlorophenoxy Herbicides……Page 226
Miscellaneous Herbicides……Page 227
Byproducts of Pesticide Manufacture……Page 228
7.12. POLYCHLORINATED BIPHENYLS……Page 230
Biodegradation of PCBs……Page 231
Polybrominated Biphenyls……Page 232
7.13. RADIONUCLIDES IN THE AQUATIC ENVIRONMENT……Page 233
LITERATURE CITED……Page 237
SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES……Page 238
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS……Page 239
8.2. MUNICIPAL WATER TREATMENT……Page 242
8.3. TREATMENT OF WATER FOR INDUSTRIAL USE……Page 243
8.4. SEWAGE TREATMENT……Page 244
Secondary Waste Treatment by Biological Processes……Page 245
Tertiary Waste Treatment……Page 248
Physical-Chemical Treatment of Municipal Wastewater……Page 249
8.5. INDUSTRIAL WASTEWATER TREATMENT……Page 250
8.6. REMOVAL OF SOLIDS……Page 251
8.7. REMOVAL OF CALCIUM AND OTHER METALS……Page 253
Removal of Iron and Manganese……Page 257
8.8. REMOVAL OF DISSOLVED ORGANICS……Page 258
8.9. REMOVAL OF DISSOLVED INORGANICS……Page 260
Electrodialysis……Page 261
Phosphorus Removal……Page 262
Nitrogen Removal……Page 264
8.10. SLUDGE……Page 266
8.11. WATER DISINFECTION……Page 268
Ozone……Page 269
8.12. NATURAL WATER PURIFICATION PROCESSES……Page 270
Industrial Wastewater Treatment by Soil……Page 271
8.13. WATER REUSE AND RECYCLING……Page 272
LITERATURE CITED……Page 273
SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES……Page 274
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS……Page 276
9.1. THE ATMOSPHERE AND ATMOSPHERIC CHEMISTRY……Page 278
Hydrocarbons and Photochemical Smog……Page 279
9.2. IMPORTANCE OF THE ATMOSPHERE……Page 280
Variation of Pressure and Density with Altitude……Page 281
9.4. ENERGY TRANSFER IN THE ATMOSPHERE……Page 284
Earth’s Radiation Budget……Page 287
Atmospheric Water in Energy and Mass Transfer……Page 289
Air Masses……Page 290
Movement of Air Masses……Page 291
Global Weather……Page 293
9.6. INVERSIONS AND AIR POLLUTION……Page 294
Human Modifications of Climate……Page 296
Effects of Urbanization on Microclimate……Page 297
9.8. CHEMICAL AND PHOTOCHEMICAL REACTIONS IN THE ATMOSPHERE……Page 298
Photochemical Processes……Page 299
Free Radicals……Page 302
Hydroxyl and Hydroperoxyl Radicals in the Atmosphere……Page 303
Chemical and Biochemical Processes in Evolution of the Atmosphere……Page 306
9.9. ACID-BASE REACTIONS IN THE ATMOSPHERE……Page 307
9.10. REACTIONS OF ATMOSPHERIC OXYGEN……Page 308
9.11. REACTIONS OF ATMOSPHERIC NITROGEN……Page 312
9.12. ATMOSPHERIC CARBON DIOXIDE……Page 313
9.13. ATMOSPHERIC WATER……Page 315
SUPPLEMENTAL REFERENCES……Page 316
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS……Page 317
10.1. PARTICLES IN THE ATMOSPHERE……Page 320
10.2. PHYSICAL BEHAVIOR OF PARTICLES IN THE ATMOSPHERE……Page 322
Size and Settling of Atmospheric Particles……Page 323
10.4. CHEMICAL PROCESSES FOR PARTICLE FORMATION……Page 324
Organic Particles……Page 325
PAH Synthesis……Page 326
10.5. THE COMPOSITION OF INORGANIC PARTICLES……Page 327
Fly Ash……Page 328
Asbestos……Page 329
Atmospheric Beryllium……Page 330
10.7. RADIOACTIVE PARTICLES……Page 331
Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons……Page 332
10.9. EFFECTS OF PARTICLES……Page 333
10.10. WATER AS PARTICULATE MATTER……Page 334
Particle filtration……Page 335
Scrubbers……Page 336
Electrostatic Removal……Page 337
LITERATURE CITED……Page 338
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS……Page 339
11.2. PRODUCTION AND CONTROL OF CARBON MONOXIDE……Page 341
11.3. FATE OF ATMOSPHERIC CO……Page 342
11.4. SULFUR DIOXIDE SOURCES AND THE SULFUR CYCLE……Page 343
11.5. SULFUR DIOXIDE REACTIONS IN THE ATMOSPHERE……Page 344
Effects of Atmospheric Sulfur Dioxide……Page 346
Sulfur Dioxide Removal……Page 347
11.6. NITROGEN OXIDES IN THE ATMOSPHERE……Page 350
Atmospheric Reactions of NO x……Page 353
Harmful Effects of Nitrogen Oxides……Page 354
Control of Nitrogen Oxides……Page 356
11.7. ACID RAIN……Page 357
11.9. FLUORINE, CHLORINE, AND THEIR GASEOUS COMPOUNDS……Page 358
Chlorine and Hydrogen Chloride……Page 359
11.10. HYDROGEN SULFIDE, CARBONYL SULFIDE, AND CARBON DISULFIDE……Page 360
SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES……Page 362
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS……Page 363
Loss of Organic Substances from the Atmosphere……Page 365
12.2. ORGANIC COMPOUNDS FROM NATURAL SOURCES……Page 366
12.3. POLLUTANT HYDROCARBONS……Page 369
12.4. ARYL HYDROCARBONS……Page 372
Reactions of Atmospheric Aryl Hydrocarbons……Page 373
12.5. ALDEHYDES AND KETONES……Page 374
Alcohols……Page 376
Phenols……Page 377
Oxides……Page 378
12.7. ORGANOHALIDE COMPOUNDS……Page 379
Chlorofluorocarbons……Page 381
Perfluorocarbons……Page 383
12.8. ORGANOSULFUR COMPOUNDS……Page 384
12.9. ORGANONITROGEN COMPOUNDS……Page 386
LITERATURE CITED……Page 388
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS……Page 389
13.1. INTRODUCTION……Page 391
Control of Exhaust Hydrocarbons……Page 392
13.3. SMOG-FORMING REACTIONS OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS IN THE ATMOSPHERE……Page 396
Photochemical Reactions of Methane……Page 397
13.4. OVERVIEW OF SMOG FORMATION……Page 399
13.5. MECHANISMS OF SMOG FORMATION……Page 400
Nitrate Radical……Page 406
Photolyzable Compounds in the Atmosphere……Page 407
13.7. INORGANIC PRODUCTS FROM SMOG……Page 408
13.8. EFFECTS OF SMOG……Page 410
LITERATURE CITED……Page 412
SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES……Page 413
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS……Page 414
14.1. ANTHROPOGENIC CHANGE IN THE ATMOSPHERE……Page 416
14.2. GREENHOUSE GASES AND GLOBAL WARMING……Page 418
Serious Concern Over Changes in Climate……Page 423
14.3. ACID RAIN……Page 424
14.4. OZONE LAYER DESTRUCTION……Page 428
14.5. PHOTOCHEMICAL SMOG……Page 431
14.6. NUCLEAR WINTER……Page 434
14.7. WHAT IS TO BE DONE?……Page 436
LITERATURE CITED……Page 438
SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES……Page 439
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS……Page 440
15.1. INTRODUCTION……Page 443
15.2. THE NATURE OF SOLIDS IN THE GEOSPHERE……Page 444
Kinds of Minerals……Page 445
Evaporites……Page 446
Igneous, Sedimentary, and Metamorphic Rock……Page 447
Rock Cycle……Page 448
Plate Tectonics and Continental Drift……Page 449
15.4. INTERNAL PROCESSES……Page 451
Volcanoes……Page 452
15.5. SURFACE PROCESSES……Page 453
15.6. SEDIMENTS……Page 454
15.7. CLAYS……Page 456
15.8. GEOCHEMISTRY……Page 457
Chemical Weathering……Page 458
15.9. GROUNDWATER IN THE GEOSPHERE……Page 460
15.10. ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF THE GEOSPHERE……Page 462
Natural Hazards……Page 463
15.11. EARTHQUAKES……Page 464
15.12. VOLCANOES……Page 466
15.13. SURFACE EARTH MOVEMENT……Page 467
15.14. STREAM AND RIVER PHENOMENA……Page 468
15.15. PHENOMENA AT THE LAND/OCEAN INTERFACE……Page 470
The Threat of Rising Sea Levels……Page 471
15.16. PHENOMENA AT THE LAND/ATMOSPHERE INTERFACE……Page 472
15.17. EFFECTS OF ICE……Page 473
15.18. EFFECTS OF HUMAN ACTIVITIES……Page 474
Environmental Effects of Mining and Mineral Extraction……Page 475
15.19. AIR POLLUTION AND THE GEOSPHERE……Page 476
15.20. WATER POLLUTION AND THE GEOSPHERE……Page 477
Municipal Refuse……Page 478
LITERATURE CITED……Page 480
SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES……Page 481
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS……Page 482
Agriculture……Page 484
Pesticides and Agriculture……Page 486
16.2. NATURE AND COMPOSITION OF SOIL……Page 487
Water and Air in Soil……Page 489
Organic Matter in Soil……Page 491
Soil Humus……Page 493
The Soil Solution……Page 494
Production of Mineral Acid in Soil……Page 495
Ion Exchange Equilibria in Soil……Page 496
16.4. MACRONUTRIENTS IN SOIL……Page 497
Nitrogen……Page 498
Phosphorus……Page 501
16.6. MICRONUTRIENTS IN SOIL……Page 502
16.7. FERTILIZERS……Page 503
16.8. WASTES AND POLLUTANTS IN SOIL……Page 505
Biodegradation and the Rhizosphere……Page 507
16.9. SOIL LOSS AND DEGRADATION……Page 508
Soil and Water Resources……Page 510
16.10. GENETIC ENGINEERING AND AGRICULTURE……Page 511
Chemical Contamination……Page 512
LITERATURE CITED……Page 513
SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES……Page 514
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS……Page 516
17.1. INTRODUCTION AND HISTORY……Page 519
17.2. INDUSTRIAL ECOSYSTEMS……Page 520
Primary Materials and Energy Producers……Page 522
Waste Processing Sector……Page 524
Industrial Metabolism and Biological Analogies……Page 525
17.5. LEVELS OF MATERIALS UTILIZATION……Page 528
Fossil fuel combustion……Page 529
Crop production……Page 530
17.7. CONSIDERATION OF ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS IN INDUSTRIAL ECOLOGY……Page 531
Unlimited Energy……Page 532
Substitution of Materials……Page 534
Recycling……Page 535
Diversity and Robust Character of Industrial Ecosystems……Page 537
17.9. LIFE CYCLES: EXPANDING AND CLOSING THE MATERIALS LOOP……Page 538
Embedded Utility……Page 539
17.10. LIFE-CYCLE ASSESSMENT……Page 540
Scoping in Life-Cycle Assessment……Page 541
Desirable Characteristics of Consumables……Page 542
Desirable Characteristics of Service Products……Page 543
Products, Processes, and Facilities……Page 544
Hazardous Materials in Design for Environment……Page 545
17.13. OVERVIEW OF AN INTEGRATED INDUSTRIAL ECOSYSTEM……Page 546
17.14. THE KALUNDBORG EXAMPLE……Page 548
17.15. SOCIETAL FACTORS AND THE ENVIRONMENTAL ETHIC……Page 549
LITERATURE CITED……Page 550
SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES……Page 551
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS……Page 552
18.1. INTRODUCTION……Page 554
Evaluation of Mineral Resources……Page 555
18.3. EXTRACTION AND MINING……Page 556
Aluminum……Page 558
Chromium……Page 563
Lead……Page 564
18.6. NONMETAL MINERAL RESOURCES……Page 566
18.7. PHOSPHATES……Page 568
18.8. SULFUR……Page 569
Gypsum……Page 570
18.9. WOOD—A MAJOR RENEWABLE RESOURCE……Page 571
18.10. THE ENERGY PROBLEM……Page 572
18.11. WORLD ENERGY RESOURCES……Page 573
18.13. ENERGY CONVERSION PROCESSES……Page 574
18.13. PETROLEUM AND NATURAL GAS……Page 576
18.14. COAL……Page 579
Coal Conversion……Page 581
18.15. NUCLEAR FISSION POWER……Page 582
18.16. NUCLEAR FUSION POWER……Page 585
18.18. THE SUN: AN IDEAL ENERGY SOURCE……Page 587
18.19. ENERGY FROM BIOMASS……Page 589
18.21. EXTENDING RESOURCES THROUGH THE PRACTICE OF INDUSTRIAL ECOLOGY……Page 591
Metals……Page 592
Plastics……Page 593
Lubricating Oil……Page 594
SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES……Page 595
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS……Page 597
History of Hazardous Substances……Page 599
Legislation……Page 600
19.2 CLASSIFICATION OF HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES AND WASTES……Page 601
Characteristics and Listed Wastes……Page 602
19.3. SOURCES OF WASTES……Page 603
Types of Hazardous Wastes……Page 604
Hazardous Waste Generators……Page 605
Combustion of Finely Divided Particles……Page 606
Spontaneous Ignition……Page 607
Toxic Products of Combustion……Page 608
19.5. REACTIVE SUBSTANCES……Page 609
Chemical Structure and Reactivity……Page 610
Sulfuric Acid……Page 611
19.8. PHYSICAL FORMS AND SEGREGATION OF WASTES……Page 613
19.9. ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY OF HAZARDOUS WASTES……Page 614
19.10. PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF HAZARDOUS WASTES……Page 615
Physical Properties of Wastes……Page 616
Effects of Hazardous Wastes……Page 617
19.12. HAZARDOUS WASTES AND THE ANTHROSPHERE……Page 618
19.13. HAZARDOUS WASTES IN THE GEOSPHERE……Page 619
19.14. HAZARDOUS WASTES IN THE HYDROSPHERE……Page 622
19.15. HAZARDOUS WASTES IN THE ATMOSPHERE……Page 624
19.16. HAZARDOUS WASTES IN THE BIOSPHERE……Page 626
Microbial Metabolism in Waste Degradation……Page 627
LITERATURE CITED……Page 628
SUPPLEMENTAL REFERENCES……Page 629
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS……Page 631
20.1. INTRODUCTION……Page 635
20.2. WASTE REDUCTION AND MINIMIZATION……Page 636
Examples of Recycling……Page 639
Recycling Waste Oil……Page 640
Waste Solvent Recovery and Recycle……Page 641
Recovery of Water from Wastewater……Page 642
Methods of Physical Treatment……Page 643
Phase Transition……Page 644
Phase Transfer……Page 645
20.5. CHEMICAL TREATMENT: AN OVERVIEW……Page 647
Precipitation of Metals……Page 648
Coprecipitation of Metals……Page 649
Electrolysis……Page 650
Chemical Extraction and Leaching……Page 652
20.6. PHOTOLYTIC REACTIONS……Page 653
Incinerable Wastes……Page 654
Incineration Systems……Page 655
Combustion Conditions……Page 656
UV-Enhanced Wet Oxidation……Page 657
Biodegradability……Page 658
Reductive Dehalogenation……Page 659
Land Treatment……Page 660
Stabilization……Page 661
Thermoplastics and Organic Polymers……Page 662
Solidification with Cement……Page 663
20.11. ULTIMATE DISPOSAL OF WASTES……Page 664
Landfill……Page 665
Leachate……Page 666
Hazardous Waste Leachate Treatment……Page 667
In-Situ Immobilization……Page 668
Permeable Bed Treatment……Page 669
Soil Washing and Flushing……Page 670
LITERATURE CITED……Page 671
SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES……Page 672
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS……Page 674
21.1. BIOCHEMISTRY……Page 677
Major Cell Features……Page 678
21.3. PROTEINS……Page 680
Protein Structure……Page 682
21.4. CARBOHYDRATES……Page 684
21.5. LIPIDS……Page 686
21.6. ENZYMES……Page 689
21.7. NUCLEIC ACIDS……Page 692
Nucleic Acids in Protein Synthesis……Page 695
21.8. RECOMBINANT DNA AND GENETIC ENGINEERING……Page 696
21.9. METABOLIC PROCESSES……Page 697
Phase I and Phase II Reactions……Page 698
SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES……Page 699
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS……Page 700
Toxicology……Page 702
Synergism, Potentiation, and Antagonism……Page 704
22.3. RELATIVE TOXICITIES……Page 705
22.4. REVERSIBILITY AND SENSITIVITY……Page 706
Hypersensitivity and Hyposensitivity……Page 707
22.5. XENOBIOTIC AND ENDOGENOUS SUBSTANCES……Page 708
Phase II Reactions……Page 709
Primary Reaction in the Dynamic Phase……Page 711
Biochemical Effects in the Dynamic Phase……Page 712
Responses to Toxicants……Page 713
Biochemistry of Mutagenesis……Page 714
Carcinogenesis……Page 716
Biochemistry of Carcinogenesis……Page 717
Alkylating Agents in Carcinogenesis……Page 718
Bruce Ames Test……Page 719
Assessment of Potential Exposure……Page 720
Risk Assessment……Page 721
SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES……Page 722
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS……Page 725
ATSDR Toxicological Profiles……Page 727
Heavy Metals……Page 729
Cyanide……Page 730
Hydrogen Halides……Page 731
Interhalogen Compounds and Halogen Oxides……Page 732
Inorganic Phosphorus Compounds……Page 733
Organometallic Compounds……Page 734
Organolead Compounds……Page 735
Alkane Hydrocarbons……Page 736
Benzene and Aromatic Hydrocarbons……Page 737
Naphthalene……Page 738
Oxides……Page 739
Alcohols……Page 740
Aldehydes and Ketones……Page 741
Carboxylic Acids……Page 742
Esters……Page 743
Aliphatic Amines……Page 744
Nitriles……Page 745
Organonitrogen Pesticides……Page 746
Alkyl Halides……Page 747
Aryl Halides……Page 748
TCDD……Page 749
Sulfur Mustards……Page 750
Phosphorothionate and Phosphorodithioate Ester Insecticides……Page 751
LITERATURE CITED……Page 753
SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES……Page 754
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS……Page 756
24.1. GENERAL ASPECTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMICAL ANALYSIS……Page 758
24.2. CLASSICAL METHODS……Page 759
Atomic Absorption and Emission Analyses……Page 761
24.4. ELECTROCHEMICAL METHODS OF ANALYSIS……Page 764
24.5. CHROMATOGRAPHY……Page 766
High-Performance Liquid Chromatography……Page 768
Physical Properties Measured in Water……Page 769
Water Sampling……Page 771
Water Sample Preservation……Page 772
Total Organic Carbon in Water……Page 773
Measurement of Radioactivity in Water……Page 774
24.8. AUTOMATED WATER ANALYSES……Page 775
LITERATURE CITED……Page 778
SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES……Page 779
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS……Page 780
25.1. INTRODUCTION……Page 782
25.2. SAMPLE DIGESTION……Page 783
SOLVENT EXTRACTION……Page 784
Sample Preparation for Volatile Organic Compounds……Page 785
25.4. SAMPLE CLEANUP……Page 787
25.5 IMMUNOASSAY SCREENING OF WASTES……Page 788
25.7. TOXICITY CHARACTERISTIC LEACHING PROCEDURE……Page 789
SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES……Page 791
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS……Page 792
Air Pollutants Measured……Page 793
26.2. SAMPLING……Page 794
26.3. METHODS OF ANALYSIS……Page 795
26.4. DETERMINATION OF SULFUR DIOXIDE……Page 797
26.5. NITROGEN OXIDES……Page 798
26.6. ANALYSIS OF OXIDANTS……Page 799
26.7. ANALYSIS OF CARBON MONOXIDE……Page 800
Determination of Specific Organics in the Atmosphere……Page 801
Filtration……Page 802
Particle Analysis……Page 805
X-Ray Fluorescence……Page 806
26.10. DIRECT SPECTROPHOTOMETRIC ANALYSIS OF GASEOUS AIR POLLUTANTS……Page 807
LITERATURE CITED……Page 809
SUPPLEMENTAL REFERENCES……Page 810
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS……Page 811
27.1. INTRODUCTION……Page 813
27.2. INDICATORS OF EXPOSURE TO XENOBIOTICS……Page 814
Metals in Wet-Ashed Blood and Urine……Page 815
27.4. DETERMINATION OF NONMETALS AND INORGANIC COMPOUNDS……Page 816
Phase 1 Reaction Products……Page 817
Mercapturates……Page 819
27.8. THE PROMISE OF IMMUNOLOGICAL METHODS……Page 822
LITERATURE CITED……Page 823
SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES……Page 824
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS……Page 826
28.1. INTRODUCTION……Page 828
Subatomic Particles……Page 829
Atom Nucleus and Electron Cloud……Page 830
The Periodic Table……Page 831
Electrons in Atoms……Page 833
28.3. CHEMICAL BONDING……Page 835
Molecular Structure……Page 836
Ionic Bonds……Page 837
Molecular Mass……Page 838
28.4. CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS……Page 839
28.5. SOLUTIONS……Page 840
Water as a Solvent……Page 841
Concentration of H + Ion and pH……Page 842
Colloidal Suspensions……Page 843
Solution Equilibria……Page 844
Distribution between Phases……Page 845
SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES……Page 846
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS……Page 847
Molecular Geometry in Organic Chemistry……Page 850
Alkanes……Page 851
Formulas of Alkanes……Page 852
Alkanes and Alkyl Groups……Page 853
Summary of Organic Nomenclature as Applied to Alkanes……Page 854
Reactions of Alkanes……Page 855
Alkenes and Alkynes……Page 856
Alkenes and Cis-trans Isomerism……Page 857
Condensed Structural Formulas……Page 858
Aryl Hydrocarbons……Page 859
Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons……Page 860
Organooxygen Compounds……Page 861
Organonitrogen Compounds……Page 862
Alkyl Halides……Page 864
Alkenyl Halides……Page 865
Chlorofluorocarbons, Halons, and Hydrogen-Containing Chlorofluorocarbons……Page 866
Chlorinated Phenols……Page 867
Nitrogen-Containing Organosulfur Compounds……Page 868
Alkyl and Aryl Phosphines……Page 870
29.4. SYNTHETIC POLYMERS……Page 871
SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES……Page 874
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS……Page 875