Mark Z. Jacobson0521811716, 9780521811712, 0521010446, 9780521010443
Table of contents :
COVER……Page 1
HALF-TITLE……Page 3
DEDICATION……Page 4
TITLE……Page 5
COPYRIGHT……Page 6
CONTENTS……Page 7
PREFACE……Page 11
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS……Page 13
1 BASICS AND HISTORY OF DISCOVERY OF ATMOSPHERIC CHEMICALS……Page 14
1.1.1. Atoms, Elements, Molecules, and Compounds……Page 15
1.1.2. Gases and Particles……Page 16
1.2.1.2. Lead……Page 17
1.2.1.4. Carbon……Page 18
1.2.1.5. Sodium Carbonate (Solid)……Page 20
1.2.1.11. Ammonium Chloride (Solid)……Page 21
1.2.1.15. Sodium Sulfate Decahydrate, Ammonium Nitrate, and Ammonium Sulfate (Solids)……Page 22
1.2.1.18. Magnesium Sulfate (Solid)……Page 23
1.2.2.4. Fire–Air……Page 24
1.2.2.6. Carbon Dioxide Again – Fixed Air……Page 25
1.2.2.8. Molecular Nitrogen (Gas) – Mephitic Air……Page 26
1.2.2.9. Molecular Oxygen (Gas) – Dephlogisticated Air……Page 27
1.2.2.10. Additional Discoveries by Priestley……Page 29
1.2.2.11. Hydrofluoric Acid (Gas)……Page 30
1.2.3.2. Elemental Silicon and Chemical Symbols……Page 31
1.2.3.4. Organic Chemistry……Page 32
1.2.3.8. Noble Gases……Page 33
1.3. CHEMICAL STRUCTURE AND REACTIVITY……Page 34
1.4. CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND PHOTOPROCESSES……Page 37
1.7. PROBLEMS……Page 39
2 THE SUN, THE EARTH, AND THE EVOLUTION OF THE EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE……Page 42
2.1. THE SUN AND ITS ORIGIN……Page 43
2.2. SPECTRA OF THE RADIATION OF THE SUN AND THE EARTH……Page 46
2.3. PRIMORDIAL EVOLUTION OF THE EARTH AND ITS ATMOSPHERE……Page 49
2.3.1. Solid-Earth Formation……Page 51
2.3.2. Prebiotic Atmosphere……Page 52
2.3.3. Biotic Atmosphere Before Oxygen……Page 53
2.3.3.3. Early Molecular Nitrogen……Page 55
2.3.4. The Oxygen Age……Page 56
2.3.6. The Nitrogen Cycle……Page 58
2.4. SUMMARY……Page 60
2.5. PROBLEMS……Page 61
3 STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF THE PRESENT-DAY ATMOSPHERE……Page 62
3.1. AIR PRESSURE AND DENSITY STRUCTURE……Page 63
3.2.1. Conduction……Page 65
3.2.2. Convection……Page 66
3.3.1.1. Boundary Layer……Page 67
3.3.1.2. Free Troposphere……Page 69
3.3.3. Mesosphere……Page 70
3.4. EQUATION OF STATE……Page 71
3.5.2. Variable Gases……Page 75
Sources and Sinks……Page 76
Health Effects……Page 77
Sources and Sinks……Page 78
3.6.3. Carbon Monoxide……Page 81
Health Effects……Page 82
Sources and Sinks……Page 83
Mixing Ratios……Page 84
Health Effects……Page 85
Health Effects……Page 86
Sources and Sinks……Page 87
Sources and Sinks……Page 88
Health Effects……Page 91
3.8. PROBLEMS……Page 92
4 URBAN AIR POLLUTION……Page 94
4.1.2. 1200–1700……Page 95
4.1.3. 1700–1840 – The Steam Engine……Page 96
4.1.5. Early Regulation in the United States, 1869–1940……Page 97
4.1.6. London-type Smog……Page 98
4.1.6.3. Donora, Pennsylvania, United States……Page 99
4.1.7. Photochemical Smog……Page 100
4.2.1. Photostationary-State Ozone Concentration……Page 106
4.2.2. Daytime Removal of Nitrogen Oxides……Page 107
4.2.4. Ozone Production from Carbon Monoxide……Page 108
4.2.5. Ozone Production from Methane……Page 109
4.2.6. Ozone Production from Formaldehyde……Page 110
4.2.8. Ozone and PAN Production from Acetaldehyde……Page 111
4.3. CHEMISTRY OF PHOTOCHEMICAL SMOG……Page 112
4.3.1. Emissions of Photochemical Smog Precursors……Page 115
4.3.2. ROG Breakdown Processes……Page 116
4.3.3. Ozone Production from Alkanes……Page 118
4.3.4.2. Alkene Reaction with Ozone……Page 119
4.3.5. Ozone Production from Aromatics……Page 120
4.3.6. Ozone Production from Terpenes……Page 121
4.3.7. Ozone Production from Alcohols……Page 122
4.5. SUMMARY……Page 124
4.6. PROBLEMS……Page 125
5 AEROSOL PARTICLES IN SMOG AND THE GLOBAL ENVIRONMENT……Page 128
5.1. SIZE DISTRIBUTIONS……Page 129
5.2.1.1. Sea-Spray Emissions……Page 131
Breakdown of Rocks to Soil Material……Page 133
Types of Minerals in Soil Dust……Page 134
5.2.1.4. Biomass Burning……Page 136
5.2.1.5. Fossil-Fuel Combustion……Page 138
5.2.1.7. Miscellaneous Sources……Page 140
5.3.1. Coagulation……Page 141
5.3.2.1. Condensation/Evaporation……Page 143
5.3.2.3. Dissolution, Dissociation, and Hydration……Page 145
Hydrochloric Acid……Page 146
Sulfuric Acid……Page 147
Ammonia……Page 148
5.3.2.4. Solid Precipitation……Page 149
5.3.3. Removal Processes……Page 150
5.4. SUMMARY OF THE COMPOSITION OF AEROSOL PARTICLES……Page 151
5.5. AEROSOL PARTICLE MORPHOLOGY AND SHAPE……Page 152
5.6. HEALTH EFFECTS OF AEROSOL PARTICLES……Page 153
5.8. PROBLEMS……Page 155
6 EFFECTS OF METEOROLOGY ON AIR POLLUTION……Page 158
6.1.2. Apparent Coriolis Force……Page 159
6.2. WINDS……Page 160
6.2.2. Surface Winds along Straight Isobars……Page 161
6.2.4. Surface Winds along Curved Isobars……Page 162
6.3. GLOBAL CIRCULATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE……Page 163
6.3.2. Winds Aloft in the Hadley Cells……Page 164
6.3.5. Subpolar Low-Pressure Belts……Page 165
6.4. SEMIPERMANENT PRESSURE SYSTEMS……Page 167
6.5. THERMAL PRESSURE SYSTEMS……Page 168
6.6. EFFECTS OF LARGE-SCALE PRESSURE SYSTEMS ON AIR POLLUTION……Page 169
6.6.1.1. Adiabatic and Environmental Lapse Rates……Page 170
6.6.1.2. Stability……Page 171
6.6.1.3. Temperature Inversions……Page 173
Large-Scale Subsidence Inversion……Page 175
Marine Inversion……Page 177
6.6.2.3. Santa Ana Winds……Page 178
6.6.2.4. Long-Range Transport of Air Pollutants……Page 179
6.6.3. Cloud Cover……Page 180
6.7.2. Soil Liquid Water Content……Page 181
6.7.3. Urban Heat Island Effect……Page 182
6.7.4.1. Sea, Lake, and Bay Breezes……Page 183
6.7.4.4. Chimney Effect and Elevated Pollution Layers……Page 184
6.7.5. Plume Dispersion……Page 187
6.8. SUMMARY……Page 188
6.9. PROBLEMS……Page 189
7 EFFECTS OF POLLUTION ON VISIBILITY, ULTRAVIOLET RADIATION, AND ATMOSPHERIC OPTICS……Page 192
7.1 PROCESSES AFFECTING SOLAR RADIATION IN THE ATMOSPHERE……Page 193
7.1.1.1. Gas Absorption at Ultraviolet and Visible Wavelengths……Page 194
7.1.1.2. Gas Absorption Extinction Coefficient……Page 195
7.1.2. Gas Scattering……Page 196
7.1.2.2. Colors of the Sky and Sun……Page 197
7.1.3.1. Important Absorbers of Visible and UV Radiation……Page 200
7.1.3.2. The Imaginary Refractive Index……Page 201
7.1.3.3. Effects of Aerosol-Particle Absorption on UV Radiation……Page 202
7.1.4.1. Reflection……Page 203
7.1.4.2. Refraction……Page 204
7.1.4.3. Diffraction……Page 205
7.1.4.5. Rainbows……Page 206
7.1.5. Particle Scattering and Absorption Extinction Coefficients……Page 208
7.2. VISIBILITY……Page 210
7.3.2. Reddish and Brown Colors in Smog……Page 215
7.3.4. Red Skies and Brilliant Horizons in Smog……Page 217
7.4. SUMMARY……Page 218
7.5. PROBLEMS……Page 219
7.6. PROJECT……Page 220
8 INTERNATIONAL REGULATION OF URBAN SMOG SINCE THE 1940s……Page 222
8.1.1. Air Pollution Control Act of 1955……Page 223
8.1.3. Motor Vehicle Air Pollution Control Act of 1965……Page 224
8.1.4. Air Quality Act of 1967……Page 225
8.1.5. Clean Air Act Amendments of 1970……Page 226
8.1.7. Clean Air Act Amendments of 1977……Page 229
8.1.8. Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990……Page 230
8.1.9. Clean Air Act Revision of 1997……Page 231
8.1.11. Smog Alerts……Page 232
8.1.12. U.S. Air Quality Trends from the 1970s to Present……Page 233
8.1.13. Visibility Regulations and Trends……Page 237
8.2. POLLUTION TRENDS AND REGULATIONS OUTSIDE THE UNITED STATES……Page 238
8.2.2. Mexico……Page 239
8.2.3. Brazil……Page 240
8.2.5. European Union……Page 241
8.2.6. United Kingdom……Page 242
8.2.7. France……Page 243
8.2.9. Germany……Page 244
8.2.10. Russia……Page 245
8.2.11. Israel……Page 246
8.2.13. Iran……Page 247
8.2.15. China……Page 248
8.2.16. Japan……Page 249
8.2.17. South Africa……Page 250
8.3. SUMMARY……Page 251
8.4. PROBLEMS……Page 252
9 INDOOR AIR POLLUTION……Page 254
9.1. POLLUTANTS IN INDOOR AIR AND THEIR SOURCES……Page 255
9.1.4. Ozone……Page 256
Sources and Sinks……Page 257
9.1.8. Volatile Organic Compounds……Page 259
9.1.10. Asbestos……Page 260
9.1.12. Environmental Tobacco Smoke……Page 261
Health Effects……Page 262
9.3. REGULATION OF INDOOR AIR POLLUTION……Page 264
9.5. PROBLEMS……Page 265
10 ACID DEPOSITION……Page 266
10.1. HISTORICAL ASPECTS OF ACID DEPOSITION……Page 267
10.2. CAUSES OF ACIDITY……Page 270
10.2.1. Carbonic Acid……Page 271
10.2.4. Hydrochloric Acid……Page 272
10.3. SULFURIC ACID DEPOSITION……Page 273
10.3.1. Gas-Phase Oxidation of S(IV)……Page 274
10.3.2. Aqueous-Phase Oxidation of S(IV)……Page 275
10.5.1. Effects on Lakes and Streams……Page 276
10.5.2. Effects on Biomass……Page 277
10.6. NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL NEUTRALIZATION OF LAKES AND SOILS……Page 279
10.6.2. Sodium and Calcium Hydroxide……Page 280
10.6.3. Calcium Carbonate……Page 281
10.6.4. Sodium Chloride……Page 282
10.7. RECENT REGULATORY CONTROL OF ACID DEPOSITION……Page 283
10.8. SUMMARY……Page 284
10.9. PROBLEMS……Page 285
11 GLOBAL STRATOSPHERIC OZONE REDUCTION……Page 286
11.1. STRUCTURE OF THE PRESENT-DAY OZONE LAYER……Page 287
11.2. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE OZONE LAYER AND UV RADIATION……Page 290
11.3.1. The Chapman Cycle……Page 291
11.3.2. Effects of Nitrogen on the Natural Ozone Layer……Page 293
11.3.3. Effects of Hydrogen on the Natural Ozone Layer……Page 294
11.3.4. Effects of Carbon on the Natural Ozone Layer……Page 295
11.4.2. Antarctic Stratospheric Changes……Page 296
11.4.3. Arctic Stratospheric Changes……Page 298
11.5.1.1. Invention of CFCs……Page 299
11.5.2. Lifetimes and Mixing Ratios of Chlorinated Compounds……Page 302
11.5.2.2. Lifetimes of Non-CFCs……Page 303
11.5.2.3. Emissions of Chlorine Compounds to the Stratosphere……Page 304
11.5.3. Catalytic Ozone Destruction by Chlorine……Page 305
11.6. EFFECTS OF BROMINE ON GLOBAL OZONE REDUCTION……Page 306
11.7. REGENERATION RATES OF STRATOSPHERIC OZONE……Page 307
11.8. ANTARCTIC OZONE DEPLETION……Page 308
11.8.1. Polar Stratospheric Cloud Formation……Page 310
11.8.2. PSC Surface Reactions……Page 311
11.8.3. Springtime Polar Chemistry……Page 312
11.9.1.1. Effects on Skin……Page 314
11.9.1.3. Effects on the Immune System……Page 315
11.10. REGULATION OF CFCs……Page 316
11.11. SUMMARY……Page 319
11.12. PROBLEMS……Page 320
12 THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT AND GLOBAL WARMING……Page 322
12.1.1. Incoming Solar Radiation……Page 323
12.1.2. Outgoing Thermal-IR Radiation……Page 326
12.1.3. Equilibrium Temperature of the Earth……Page 327
12.2.1. Greenhouse Gases and Particles……Page 329
12.2.2. Historical Aspects of Global Warming……Page 331
12.2.4. Trends in Greenhouse Gases……Page 332
12.3.1. The Recent Temperature Record……Page 336
12.3.2.1. From the Origin of the Earth to 570 Million Years Ago……Page 339
12.3.2.2. From 570 to 100 Million Years Ago……Page 341
12.3.2.3. From 100 to 3 Million Years Ago……Page 342
12.3.2.4. From 3 Million Years Ago to 20,000 Years Ago……Page 343
Changes in the Eccentricity of the Earth’s Orbit……Page 344
Effects of the Milankovitch Cycles……Page 346
12.3.2.5. From 20,000 to 9,000 Years Ago……Page 347
12.3.2.6. The Holocene Epoch……Page 348
12.4.1. Alternative Arguments Used to Explain Global Warming……Page 350
12.4.2. Feedbacks of Gases to Climate……Page 351
12.4.3. Effects of Aerosol Particles on Climate……Page 352
The “Daytime Stability Effect”……Page 353
The “BC-Low-Cloud-Positive Feedback Loop”……Page 354
12.5.1. Rise in Sea Level……Page 355
12.5.3. Changes in Ecosystems……Page 356
12.5.5. Effects on Stratospheric Ozone……Page 357
12.6. REGULATORY CONTROL OF GLOBAL WARMING……Page 358
12.7. SUMMARY……Page 362
12.8. PROBLEMS……Page 363
12.9. ESSAY QUESTIONS……Page 364
A.1.4. CONSTANTS……Page 366
REFERENCES……Page 368
CHAPTER 1……Page 384
CHAPTER 4……Page 385
CHAPTER 7……Page 386
CHAPTER 10……Page 387
CHAPTER 12……Page 388
INDEX……Page 390
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