Encyclopedia of Physical Science and Technology – Earth Sciences

Robert A. Meyers (Editor-in-Chief)

Nine years has passed since the 1992 second edition of the encyclopedia was published. This completely revised third edition, which is a university and professional level compendium of chemistry, molecular biology, mathematics, and engineering, is refreshed with numerous articles about current research in these fields. For example, the new edition has an increased emphasis on information processing and biotechnology, reflecting the rapid growth of these areas. The continuing Editor-in-Chief, Robert Meyers, and the Board prepared a new topical outline of physical science and technology to define complete coverage. Section editors are either Nobel Laureates or editors of key journals in their fields. Additional Board members representing the global scientific community were also recruited.

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Table of contents :
Glossary……Page 1
From Stratigraphy to Earth History……Page 2
The Fact of Extinction……Page 4
The Origin of Mountains: Thermal Contraction……Page 5
Continental Drift as Alternative to Contraction Theory……Page 6
The Rejection of Continental Drift……Page 7
Plate Tectonics……Page 8
Oceanography……Page 9
Meteorology……Page 10
Seismology……Page 11
Historiographic Reflections……Page 12
References……Page 13
Glossary……Page 14
Environment of Evaporite Formation……Page 15
Groundwater-derived Crystals and Crusts……Page 16
Lacustrine Evaporites……Page 17
Marine Evaporites……Page 18
Ion Imbalance……Page 20
Precipitation Sequence……Page 21
Residual Bitterns……Page 22
Iron Staining……Page 23
Substitutions and Inclusions……Page 24
Clastics in Evaporites……Page 25
Facies Distribution……Page 26
Synsedimentary Subsidence……Page 27
Basin Depth……Page 28
Epigenetic Alterations……Page 29
References……Page 31
Glossary……Page 33
Forms of Dissolved Species……Page 34
Types of Chemical Weathering……Page 35
Stability of Silicates……Page 36
Horizonation……Page 38
Activity versus Concentration……Page 39
Activity Coefficient and Ionic Strength……Page 40
Streams……Page 42
Lakes……Page 43
Seawater……Page 44
Diagenesis……Page 45
Sequence of Reactions……Page 46
Types of Reactions……Page 47
Carbon……Page 48
References……Page 49
Glossary……Page 50
Bioproductivity and the Global Organic Carbon Cycle……Page 51
Insoluble, Nonhydrolyzable Highly Aliphatic Biopolymers……Page 52
Lipids (Monomers)……Page 53
Factors Influencing the Preservation and Accumulation of Organic Matter in Sediments……Page 54
Diagenesis, Catagenesis, and Metagenesis……Page 55
Biological Markers……Page 56
Thermal Hydrocarbon Generation……Page 58
Crude Oil Classification……Page 59
Coal……Page 60
Oil Shales……Page 61
Primary and Secondary Migration……Page 62
Organic Geochemistry in Petroleum Exploration……Page 64
Maturity of Organic Matter……Page 65
Bulk Maturity Parameters……Page 66
Chemical Maturity Parameters……Page 67
Oil/Source Rock Correlation……Page 68
Experimental Simulation of Petroleum Formation……Page 69
Modelling of Geological and Geochemical Processes……Page 70
C/N Ratio……Page 71
Stable Carbon Isotope Ratios……Page 72
ACL Index Based on Land Plant Wax Alkanes……Page 74
References……Page 75
Glossary……Page 76
Introduction……Page 77
Features of Existing Glaciers……Page 78
Formation and Deformation of Glacier Ice……Page 81
Glacier Flowby Ice Deformation……Page 83
Flow of Ice Shelves……Page 86
Basal Motion and Water Flow at the Bed……Page 87
Temperatures in Glaciers……Page 89
Ice Stream Flow……Page 91
Growth and Decay of Glaciers……Page 94
Unstable Flow……Page 96
Ice Core Analysis……Page 98
References……Page 102
Principles……Page 103
Models……Page 106
Aqueous Phase Transport……Page 107
Immiscible Phase Transport……Page 108
Land-Based Disposal of Hazardous Waste……Page 109
References……Page 110
Glossary……Page 111
Forecast Period……Page 112
Hydrologic Classification of Forecast Modeling……Page 113
Criterion 1: Time Scale of Catchment Response……Page 114
One-Dimensional Dynamic Wave Methods……Page 115
Two- and Three-Dimensional Hydraulic Models……Page 116
Hydrologic (Lumped) Routing Models……Page 117
Empirical Models……Page 118
Statistically Based Methods……Page 119
Chaos, phase-space and local linear models…….Page 120
Lumped Conceptual Models……Page 121
Semidistributed and Distributed Models……Page 122
Forecast Updating……Page 123
Forecast Accuracy……Page 125
Forecast Accuracy Versus Lead Time……Page 126
Storage Accounting Models……Page 129
References……Page 130
Atmospheric Forcing of the Upper Ocean……Page 131
Diurnal Thermal Cycle……Page 132
Modeling……Page 133
Mean Current Profile……Page 135
References……Page 136
Glossary……Page 137
Basic Equations……Page 138
The Ekman Spiral……Page 139
Profiles in the Molecular Sublayer……Page 142
Surface Turbulent Layers and the Transition to Molecular Sublayers……Page 144
Rough Flow……Page 146
Transfer of Trace Constituents Across the Interface……Page 147
Energetics of the Boundary Layer……Page 149
Well-Mixed Boundary Layers……Page 150
Cloud-Topped Marine Boundary Layer……Page 151
Cold Air Outbreak……Page 152
Trade Winds……Page 153
References……Page 155
Glossary……Page 156
Introduction……Page 158
Water……Page 159
Composition and Salinity of Seawater……Page 160
The Physical Chemistry of Seawater……Page 161
The Production Equation……Page 162
Chemical Effects of Vertical Mixing……Page 163
The Nitrogen Cycle……Page 164
The Carbon Cycle and the Carbonate System……Page 165
Sampling……Page 168
Analytical Methods and Instrumentation……Page 169
Trace Metals, Isotopes, and Radionuclides……Page 170
See also the Following Articles……Page 171
References……Page 172
Glossary……Page 173
An Overview of the Physics of Ocean General Circulation……Page 174
Quasigeostrophic Dynamics……Page 175
Extratropical Planetary Waves……Page 176
Extratropical Ocean Adjustment……Page 177
Adjustment of Tropical Wind-Driven Circulation……Page 178
Equatorially Trapped Waves……Page 179
Equatorial Adjustment……Page 180
Adjustment of Thermohaline Circulation……Page 182
References……Page 184
Glossary……Page 185
Watermass Structure of the Ocean……Page 186
Equations of Motion……Page 190
Ekman and Geostrophic Flow……Page 193
A Layered Description of the Flow……Page 194
Potential Vorticity Constraints on Flow……Page 195
Small-Scale Mixing……Page 196
Surface Wind-Driven Thermocline……Page 197
The Deep Thermocline and the Importance of Small-Scale Mixing……Page 200
Intermediate-Depth Circulation……Page 202
Conclusions……Page 205
References……Page 206
Glossary……Page 207
Relations among Soil Phases and Unit Weights……Page 208
Classification……Page 209
Heads……Page 210
Darcy’s Law……Page 211
Laplace’s Equation and Its Solution……Page 212
Compression Relations……Page 213
Settlement Analysis……Page 214
Linear, One-Dimensional Consolidation……Page 215
Coulomb Relation……Page 216
Mohr’s Circle……Page 217
An Example—the Infinite Slope……Page 218
Special Soils……Page 219
References……Page 220
Glossary……Page 221
Volume and Mass Relationships of Soil Constituents……Page 222
Soil Wetness……Page 223
Nature of Clay……Page 224
Mechanical Analysis……Page 225
Types of Soil Structure……Page 226
Importance of Soil Water……Page 227
Soil-Water Characteristic Curve……Page 228
The Tensiometer……Page 229
Measurement of the Soil-Moisture Characteristic Curves……Page 230
Darcy’s Law……Page 231
Hydraulic Conductivity……Page 232
Flow in Unsaturated versus Saturated Soil……Page 233
General Equation of Unsaturated Flow……Page 234
Importance of Soil Aeration……Page 235
Convective Flow of Soil Air……Page 236
Importance of Soil Temperature……Page 237
Volumetric Heat Capacity of Soils……Page 238
See also the Following Articles……Page 240
References……Page 241
Glossary……Page 242
Representative Elementary Volume……Page 243
Stochastic Approach……Page 244
At the Macroscopic Level……Page 245
Estimation by Kriging of Heterogeneous Permeability Fields……Page 246
Stochastic Flow Equations, Analytical and Numerical Solutions……Page 247
Analytic Solutions of the Stochastic Diffusivity Equation……Page 248
Monte Carlo Simulation Method for Solving the Stochastic Flow Equations……Page 249
References……Page 250
Streamflow Measurement……Page 252
Measurement of Discharge……Page 253
Streamflow Data Archives……Page 255
Simple Water Budget……Page 257
Short-Term Variation……Page 258
Long-Term Variation……Page 259
Variability between Rivers……Page 260
Spiritual and Cultural……Page 261
Hydroelectric Power……Page 262
Small-Scale Flow Variation……Page 264
References……Page 265