Encyclopedia of Physical Science and Technology – Classical Physics

Robert A. Meyers (Editor-in-Chief)

Nine years has passed since the 1992 second edition of the encyclopedia was published. This completely revised third edition, which is a university and professional level compendium of chemistry, molecular biology, mathematics, and engineering, is refreshed with numerous articles about current research in these fields. For example, the new edition has an increased emphasis on information processing and biotechnology, reflecting the rapid growth of these areas. The continuing Editor-in-Chief, Robert Meyers, and the Board prepared a new topical outline of physical science and technology to define complete coverage. Section editors are either Nobel Laureates or editors of key journals in their fields. Additional Board members representing the global scientific community were also recruited.

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Table of contents :
Glossary……Page 1
The Period-Doubling Noise Sequence……Page 2
Lyapunov Analysis……Page 4
Period-Doubling Bubble Oscillations……Page 5
Theory of Driven Bubbles……Page 8
Other Systems……Page 9
References……Page 11
Glossary……Page 12
Air Condenser Microphone……Page 13
Electret Condenser Microphone……Page 15
Microphone Specifications……Page 16
Directional Properties……Page 17
Microphone Calibration……Page 18
Microphone Performance in Harsh Environments……Page 19
Fiberoptic Sensors……Page 20
Sound Intensity……Page 21
Acoustic Enclosures……Page 22
Pressure Gradient Microphone……Page 23
Cylindrical Resonator……Page 24
Sound Attenuation……Page 25
Optoacoustical Method: Laser-Induced Thermal Acoustics……Page 26
Impedance Tube……Page 27
Spectral Selection……Page 28
Spectrum Analyzers……Page 29
Fast Fourier Transform……Page 30
Sound Level Meters……Page 31
Measurement of Reverberation Time……Page 32
Measurement of Impulsive Noises……Page 34
Aircraft Flyover Testing for Certification……Page 35
References……Page 36
Glossary……Page 37
Refraction and Transmission……Page 38
Deterministic (Single-Frequency) Versus Random Linear Acoustics……Page 39
Linear Versus Nonlinear Acoustics……Page 40
Derivation of Basic Equations……Page 41
Ray Acoustics……Page 42
Normal Mode Theory……Page 43
Reflection and Transmission……Page 44
Interference……Page 46
Propagating Waves……Page 47
Reverberation……Page 48
Wave Guides and Ducts……Page 49
Helmholtz Integral, Sommerfeld Radiation Condition, and Green’s Functions……Page 51
Vibrating Structures and Radiation: Multipole Contributions……Page 53
Coupled Versus Uncoupled Systems……Page 54
Impedance Considerations……Page 56
Asymptotic Approximations……Page 58
Impulse Response……Page 60
Statistics of the Response……Page 61
Important Quantities Derivable from the Cross Spectrum……Page 62
The Conceptual Meaning of Cross Correlation, Cross Spectrum, and Coherence……Page 63
Physical Concept of Transfer Function……Page 65
Response in Terms of Green’s Functions……Page 66
Statistical Differential Equations Governing the Sound Field……Page 67
Integral Relation for the Response……Page 69
Computation of the Response in Terms of Modes……Page 71
Coupled Structural Acoustic Systems……Page 73
See also the Following Articles……Page 74
References……Page 75
Glossary……Page 76
Introduction……Page 77
Ergodicity……Page 79
Extreme Sensitivity to Initial Conditions……Page 80
Fractals……Page 82
The Logistic Map……Page 83
Period Doubling……Page 84
Universality……Page 86
Chaos……Page 87
Strange Attractors……Page 88
The Lorenz Attractor……Page 89
Applications……Page 90
Hyperchaos……Page 91
Spatiotemporal Chaos……Page 92
Control and Synchronization of Chaos……Page 93
The Baker’s Transformation……Page 94
The Standard Map……Page 95
Chaotic Diffusion……Page 97
Poincaré Sections……Page 98
Applications……Page 99
The Problem of Quantum Chaos……Page 100
Symptoms of Quantum Chaos……Page 101
The Quantum Standard Map……Page 102
Microwave Ionization of Highly Excited Hydrogen Atoms……Page 103
References……Page 104
Glossary……Page 105
Introduction……Page 106
Round Lenses……Page 107
Quadrupoles……Page 111
Traditional Method……Page 112
Lie Methods……Page 115
Guns……Page 116
Magnetic Lenses……Page 117
Aberration Correction……Page 119
Prisms, Mirrors, and Energy Analyzers……Page 122
Wave Propagation……Page 124
Instrumental Optics: Microscopes……Page 126
Interference and Holography……Page 131
Digital Processing……Page 132
References……Page 133
One-Dimensional Considerations……Page 135
Stress……Page 136
Strain……Page 139
Hooke’s Law and its Limits……Page 140
Strain Energy……Page 141
Equilibrium and the Formulation of Boundary Value Problems……Page 142
Example B……Page 143
Example C……Page 144
References……Page 146
Glossary……Page 147
Intentional Sources……Page 148
Conducted Interference……Page 149
Control……Page 150
Control……Page 151
Robust, Quiet Circuits……Page 153
Design Frameworks……Page 154
European EMC Regulations—EMC Directive (89/336/EEC)……Page 155
Standards Rationale……Page 156
Military Standards……Page 157
Radiated……Page 159
Electrostatic Discharge……Page 160
References……Page 161
Historical Introduction……Page 162
The Density Functions……Page 163
Maxwell’s Equations……Page 165
Field Equations at a Surface: Boundary Conditions……Page 166
Integral Forms of the Field Equations……Page 167
Field Equations in Simple Media……Page 168
Scalar and Vector Potential Functions……Page 170
Electromagnetic Waves……Page 171
Transmission of Electromagnetic Waves……Page 173
Scattering and Diffraction of Electromagnetic Waves……Page 174
References……Page 175
Introduction……Page 177
Theory of Gravitational Waves……Page 178
Linearized Theory……Page 180
Energy Flux Carried by Gravitational Waves……Page 183
Generation of Gravitational Waves……Page 184
Rotating Binary System……Page 186
Resonant Detectors……Page 187
Laser Interferometers……Page 189
Photon shot noise……Page 190
Space Detectors……Page 191
Satellite Tracking……Page 192
Radiation from Gravitational Collapse……Page 193
Radiation from Binary Systems……Page 194
References……Page 195
Conduction Heat Transfer……Page 196
Fundamental Law of Heat Conduction……Page 197
Differential Heat Conduction Equation……Page 198
Finite Difference Representation of Steady-State Heat Conduction……Page 199
Fluid Mechanics and the Reynolds Number……Page 200
The Convective Thermal Energy Equation and the Nusselt Number……Page 201
Physical Mechanisms of Thermal Radiation……Page 202
Radiation Properties……Page 203
Heat Exchange Between Nonblack Bodies……Page 204
Nucleate Boiling……Page 205
Film Boiling……Page 206
Physical And Transport Properties……Page 207
References……Page 209
Glossary……Page 210
Structure Of Liquids……Page 211
Dynamic Properties Of Liquids……Page 214
Single-Particle Motion in the Hydrodynamic Limit……Page 215
Compartmented Liquids……Page 217
Glass-Forming Liquids……Page 218
Dynamics In Complex Liquids……Page 219
References……Page 220
Kinematics……Page 221
Inertia……Page 222
Simple Harmonic Motion……Page 223
Potential Energy……Page 224
Center of Mass……Page 225
Definitions……Page 226
Hamilton’s Equation……Page 227
References……Page 228
Glossary……Page 229
Density Correlation Function……Page 230
Linearized Hydrodynamics……Page 232
Generalized Hydrodynamics……Page 233
Kinetic Theory……Page 236
Mode Coupling Theory……Page 239
Lattice Gas Hydrodynamics……Page 242
References……Page 246
Glossary……Page 248
Structural Sketch of the Auditory Detection System……Page 249
Auditory Processes in a Large Room……Page 251
The Guitar……Page 252
The Harpsichord and Piano……Page 255
Radiation Behavior of Platelike Vibrators……Page 257
Piano Onset and Decay Phenomena……Page 258
The Singing Voice……Page 259
The Structure of a Wind Instrument……Page 261
The Frequency-Domain Description of Wind Instrument Oscillation……Page 262
Sound Spectra in the Mouthpiece/Reed Cavity……Page 263
Overall Spectrum Envelopes of Wind Instruments in a Room……Page 266
The Frequency-Domain Formulation Reapplied……Page 268
Spectrum Systematics……Page 269
The Violin’s Measured Room-Average Spectrum and Its Implications……Page 270
The Aptness of Instrumental Sounds in Rooms……Page 271
References……Page 274
Glossary……Page 275
Introduction……Page 276
Free Vibrations……Page 277
Nonlinear Resonance……Page 278
Stability and Bifurcations……Page 279
Flows and Maps: Poincaré Sections……Page 280
One-Dimensional Maps, Bifurcations, and Chaos……Page 281
Fractal Dimension……Page 283
The Lorenz Equations: A Model for Convection Dynamics……Page 284
Spatiotemporal Dynamics: Solitons……Page 285
Controlling Chaos……Page 286
References……Page 287
Glossary……Page 288
Linear Polarization……Page 289
Elliptical Polarization……Page 290
Notation……Page 291
Fresnel Equations……Page 292
Birefringent Crystal Polarizers……Page 293
Dichroic Polarizers……Page 294
Waveplates……Page 295
Rhombs……Page 296
Electrooptic and Magnetooptic Effects……Page 297
Coherency Matrix……Page 298
Jones Calculus……Page 299
Poincar´e Sphere……Page 302
Light Measurement……Page 303
Sample Measurement……Page 304
References……Page 305
Glossary……Page 306
Units and Nomenclature……Page 307
Geometric Concepts……Page 308
The I-P System……Page 310
Definitions of Fundamental Quantities……Page 311
Definitions of Spectral Quantities……Page 312
The Sensation of Vision……Page 313
Definitions of Fundamental Quantities……Page 314
Lambertian Sources and the Cosine Law……Page 316
Flux Relationships……Page 317
Fundamental Equations of Flux Transfer……Page 318
Effect of Refractive Index Changes……Page 319
Stefan–Boltzmann Law……Page 320
Experimental Approximation of a Blackbody……Page 321
Electrically Powered Sources……Page 322
Solar Radiation and Daylight……Page 323
Terminology……Page 324
Nonconductor Optical Properties……Page 325
Directional Optical Properties……Page 326
The Detection of Radiation……Page 327
Introduction……Page 328
Cosine Correction……Page 329
Standard Sources……Page 331
National Standards Laboratories……Page 332
References……Page 333
Glossary……Page 334
Supersymmetry……Page 335
Basic Ideas of String Theory……Page 336
Perturbation Theory……Page 337
The Origins of Gauge Symmetry……Page 338
String Theory Basics……Page 339
World-Volume Actions……Page 340
Boundary Conditions……Page 341
The Free String Spectrum……Page 342
The Structure of String Perturbation Theory……Page 344
The Gauge-Fixed Theory……Page 345
The R and NS Sectors……Page 346
The GSO Projection……Page 347
Anomalies……Page 348
From Superstrings to M-Theory……Page 349
M-Theory……Page 350
Type II p-branes……Page 351
Type IIB Superstring Theory……Page 352
Conclusion……Page 353
References……Page 354
Glossary……Page 355
Thermodynamic Systems and Properties……Page 356
Mass Balance……Page 357
Criteria for Equilibrium and Stability……Page 358
Maxwell’s Relations……Page 359
Criterion for Phase Equilibrium……Page 360
Calculation of Phase Equilibrium……Page 361
Clapeyron and Clausius–Clapeyron Equations……Page 362
Criteria for Phase and Chemical Equilibrium in Mixtures……Page 363
Mixture Phase Equilibrium Calculations……Page 364
Phase Equilibrium Calculations Using an Equation of State……Page 365
Excess Properties and Activity Coefficients……Page 366
Phase Equilibrium Calculations Using Activity Coefficients……Page 368
Henry’s Law……Page 369
Chemical Equilibrium……Page 370
Electrolyte Solutions……Page 372
References……Page 373
Glossary……Page 374
Introduction……Page 375
Freezing Points……Page 376
Interpolation Devices……Page 377
The Scale Definition……Page 379
Electrical Measurements……Page 381
General Concepts……Page 382
Gas Thermometry……Page 383
Black-Body Radiation……Page 384
Magnetic Thermometry……Page 385
Practical Thermometry……Page 386
Metallic Thermometers……Page 387
Semiconductors……Page 388
Thermocouples……Page 389
Optical Pyrometry……Page 390
References……Page 391
Glossary……Page 392
Ocean Environment……Page 393
Shallow Water and Waveguide Propagation……Page 394
Volume Attenuation……Page 396
Bottom Loss……Page 397
Ambient Noise……Page 398
Passive Sonar Equation……Page 399
Sound Propagation Models……Page 401
Wavenumber Representation or Spectral Solution……Page 402
Adiabatic Mode Theory……Page 403
Generalized or Higher-Order PE Methods……Page 404
Quantitative Description of Propagation……Page 405
Frequency Domain Processing……Page 407
Some Beamformer Properties……Page 409
Active Sonar Signal Processing……Page 410
Comparison of Processing for Detection, Communications, and Seabed Mapping……Page 412
References……Page 413
Definitions……Page 414
Natural Frequency……Page 415
Energy Method……Page 416
Rotating Unbalance……Page 417
Vibration Isolation……Page 418
Equivalent Damping……Page 419
Arbitrary Excitation……Page 420
Natural Frequencies and Mode Shapes……Page 421
Normal Coordinates……Page 422
Forced Harmonic Motion……Page 423
Orthogonality of Modes……Page 424
Modal Matrix……Page 425
Beams……Page 426
Mode Summation……Page 427
Rayleigh Quotient……Page 428
Holzer Method……Page 429
Transfer Matrix……Page 430
Finite Difference Numerical Computation……Page 431
References……Page 432
Glossary……Page 433
Amplitude, Phase, Wavelength, Wavenumber, Period, and Frequency……Page 434
Phase Speed and Group Speed……Page 435
Stationary Phase Formula……Page 437
Asymptotic Analysis of Fourier Superposition……Page 438
An Example of Dispersive Wave Propagation……Page 439
Plane Waves: Phase Velocity and Group Velocity……Page 442
Multidimensional Stationary Phase Formula……Page 444
Asymptotic Analysis of Fourier Superposition……Page 445
Plane Waves: Reflection and Refraction……Page 446
References……Page 448