Malcolm G. Anderson, Jeffrey J. McDonnell0471491039, 9780471491033, 0470848944, 9780470848944
Table of contents :
Encyclopedia of Hydrological Sciences……Page 1
bookwarez.org……Page 0
Editorial Board……Page 5
Contents……Page 6
Contributors……Page 10
Preface……Page 23
Abbreviations and Acronyms……Page 24
PART 1 Theory, Organization and Scale……Page 38
HYDROLOGICAL PROCESSES – WATER CYCLES ANDWHY ORGANIZATION IS AN ISSUE……Page 39
FUNDAMENTAL EQUATIONS – ARE THERE ANY?……Page 41
HYDROLOGICAL MEASUREMENTS – WHY SIZE MATTERS……Page 42
THE STATISTICAL APPROACH – STATISTICS, SELF SIMILARITY, AND UP/DOWNSCALING……Page 43
THE DETERMINISTIC APPROACH – MODEL CONCEPTS AND WHY UPSCALING AND DOWNSCALING IS NEEDED……Page 44
LINKING IT ALL TOGETHER – FEEDBACKS AND ELEMENTS OF A THEORY……Page 46
REFERENCES……Page 47
EARTH SYSTEM AND WATER……Page 49
EXISTENCE OF WATER ON THE EARTH ( Chapter 4, Organization and Process, Volume 1; Chapter 25, Global Energy and Water Balances, Volume 1)……Page 50
WATER CYCLE ON THE EARTH ( Chapter 4, Organization and Process, Volume 1)……Page 51
Combined Atmosphere–River Basin Water Balance……Page 53
RIVERS IN GLOBAL HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE……Page 54
GLOBAL WATER BALANCE ESTIMATED BY LAND SURFACE MODELS……Page 55
ANTHROPOGENIC EFFECTS ON THE GLOBAL WATER CYCLE ( Chapter 34, Climate Change – Past, Present and Future, Volume 1)……Page 57
REFERENCES……Page 58
Variability……Page 59
The Nature of Variability: Random and Deterministic……Page 60
Hydrological Variability Depends on the Physical Setting……Page 63
Diurnal Cycle……Page 64
Annual Cycle and Seasonality……Page 65
Interannual Variability……Page 67
Climate……Page 68
Soils……Page 69
Topography……Page 70
Catchments and Aquifers……Page 71
SPACE-TIME VARIABILITY……Page 72
Soil Moisture……Page 73
SUMMARY……Page 74
REFERENCES……Page 75
Introduction – The Hydrological Cycle……Page 77
HYDROLOGICAL PATHWAYS……Page 78
Hillslopes……Page 80
Channelways……Page 85
Sediment and Solute Transport……Page 88
Channel Cutting and Infilling……Page 92
FEEDBACKS……Page 93
REFERENCES……Page 94
FUNDAMENTAL CONSERVATION PRINCIPLES……Page 95
DIFFERENTIAL FORM OF CONSERVATION EXPRESSIONS……Page 96
Conservation Of Mass……Page 97
Conservation Of Momentum……Page 99
Conservation of Energy……Page 101
Advection–Dispersion Equation……Page 103
Navier–Stokes Equations……Page 104
Multiphase Flow And Richards Equation……Page 107
Saint Venant Equations For Open-channel Flow……Page 109
REFERENCES……Page 110
INTRODUCTION……Page 111
Instruments……Page 112
FUNDAMENTAL ISSUES OF SCALE……Page 120
PLANNING A MEASUREMENT SYSTEM……Page 123
PRACTICAL ISSUES……Page 126
SUMMARY……Page 128
REFERENCES……Page 129
INTRODUCTION……Page 131
CHARACTERIZATION BY DISTRIBUTION FUNCTION……Page 135
SECOND-MOMENT CHARACTERIZATION……Page 137
Random Variable……Page 138
Time Series……Page 139
Random Vector……Page 142
Spatial-temporal Random Processes……Page 148
Harmonic (Spectral) Analysis……Page 150
Principal Component Analysis (pca)……Page 151
Empirical Orthogonal Functions (eof)……Page 152
CONCLUDING REMARKS……Page 154
REFERENCES……Page 156
INTRODUCTION……Page 159
FRACTALS AND SELF-SIMILARITY CONCEPTS……Page 160
Fractal Terrain……Page 162
Drainage Networks……Page 163
Porous Media……Page 164
Rainfall……Page 165
REFERENCES……Page 167
INTRODUCTION……Page 170
First-order Scale Effects……Page 171
Representing Variability……Page 173
Modes of Application……Page 174
Upscaling Point Rainfall to Catchments……Page 175
Temporal Disaggregation of Rainfall……Page 176
Statistical Downscaling of the Output of Global Circulation Models……Page 177
Flood Frequency as a Function of Catchment Scale……Page 179
Upscaling and Downscaling Soil Moisture……Page 180
Subsurface Media Characterization and Generation……Page 182
Acknowledgments……Page 184
REFERENCES……Page 185
INTRODUCTION……Page 190
MODEL DEVELOPMENT……Page 191
MODEL CLASSIFICATION……Page 193
MODEL CALIBRATION AND VALIDATION……Page 194
MODEL UNCERTAINTIES……Page 195
REFERENCES……Page 196
INTRODUCTION……Page 199
SCALES AND PROCESS REPRESENTATION……Page 200
HYDROLOGICAL MODELS……Page 201
Effective Parameters……Page 202
Fully Distributed Numerical Modeling……Page 204
Deterministic……Page 205
Stochastic……Page 207
FUTURE DIRECTIONS FOR SCALING……Page 208
REFERENCES……Page 209
INTRODUCTION……Page 211
Surface Energy Balance……Page 212
Budyko’s Approach to Catchments……Page 213
VEGETATION……Page 214
Biological Overview……Page 215
Leaf Biochemistry……Page 216
Individual Plants and Ecological Strategy……Page 218
Soil: Water and Nutrient Cycles……Page 220
TOWARDS OPTIMALITY……Page 221
Optimality of Canopy Water-use Efficiency of Photosynthesis……Page 222
Potential Hydrological and Ecological Applications of Bejan’s Theory……Page 223
FURTHER READING……Page 224
REFERENCES……Page 225
INTRODUCTION……Page 227
Catchments as ‘‘Complex Systems with Some Degree of Organization’’……Page 228
Current Status of Process Theories……Page 229
Current Status of Empirical Theories……Page 230
Current State of Theories Regarding Organization……Page 233
Status of Theories of Catchment Hydrology: Impasse!……Page 235
Approaches to a New Unified Theory of Hydrology at the Catchment Scale……Page 236
Downward and Upward Approaches to Theory Development……Page 237
Reconciliation Between the Upward and Downward Approaches……Page 239
Pattern to Process: Spatial Scaling Behavior of Flood Frequency……Page 241
Pattern to Process: Scaling of Hydraulic Geometry and Links to River Meandering……Page 242
Process to Patterns: Climate-soil-vegetation Interactions and Ecological Optimality……Page 243
Elements of the New Unified Theory of Hydrology……Page 245
Process of Theory Development and Needed Infrastructure……Page 246
Acknowledgments……Page 249
REFERENCES……Page 250
PART 2 Hydroinformatics……Page 254
INTRODUCTION……Page 255
HYDROINFORMATICS DEVELOPING INTO A SOCIOTECHNOLOGY……Page 257
FROM COMPUTATION TO COMMUNICATION……Page 258
FLOW RESISTANCE DUE TO VEGETATION OBTAINED FROM GENETIC PROGRAMMING……Page 261
HARMFUL ALGAL BLOOM PREDICTION USING FUZZY LOGIC AND CELLULAR AUTOMATA……Page 263
THE ‘‘HOLY GRAIL’’ OF THE FIFTH GENERATION SOFTWARE SYSTEM……Page 264
AGENT-BASED COMMUNICATION……Page 265
HYDROLOGY AS A CONJUNCTIVE KNOWLEDGE IN A MULTIKNOWLEDGE ENVIRONMENT……Page 266
OUTLINE AND SCOPE OF SUBSEQUENT ARTICLES CONTAINED IN THE REMAINDER OF THIS CHAPTER……Page 267
FURTHER READING……Page 268
REFERENCES……Page 269
INTRODUCTION……Page 271
DEM Data Sources and Products……Page 272
GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS……Page 273
Map Projections……Page 274
Flow Direction……Page 275
Flow Accumulation……Page 277
Flow Length……Page 278
Velocity and Travel Times……Page 280
Watershed and Channel Slopes……Page 281
CASE STUDY – MARYLAND’S GISHYDRO2000……Page 283
REFERENCES……Page 286
INTRODUCTION……Page 288
ONE-DIMENSIONAL FLOW……Page 290
NUMERICAL SOLUTIONS……Page 292
HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES……Page 294
TWO-DIMENSIONAL MODELING……Page 295
INTEGRATED 1D/2D MODELING……Page 297
CONCLUDING REMARKS……Page 299
REFERENCES……Page 300
INTRODUCTION……Page 302
Three-dimensional Flows……Page 303
Two-dimensional Flows……Page 304
Three-dimensional Flow Fields……Page 305
WATER QUALITY PROCESSES……Page 306
Heavy Metal Modeling……Page 307
Modeling Bathing Water Quality in the Ribble Estuary……Page 308
Model Application to Humber Estuary……Page 309
Discussion……Page 312
FURTHER READING……Page 313
REFERENCES……Page 314
INTRODUCTION……Page 316
Shallow Water Models with Porosity……Page 317
CONCLUSIONS……Page 320
REFERENCES……Page 322
INTRODUCTION……Page 324
MACHINE LEARNING AS THE BASIS FOR DDM……Page 325
TRAINING, CROSS-VALIDATION, VERIFICATION (TESTING)……Page 326
MODELS DRIVEN BY NOMINAL DATA: CLUSTERING AND CLASSIFICATION……Page 327
MODELS DRIVEN BY REAL-VALUED DATA: SIMPLE FUNCTIONS COMBINED……Page 328
COMBINING MODELS: LOCAL MODELS, BOOSTING, COMMITTEE MACHINES, AND TREES……Page 329
Regression Trees and M5 Model Trees……Page 330
NO EXPLICIT MODELS: INSTANCE-BASED LEARNING……Page 331
OTHER METHODS……Page 332
AN EXAMPLE OF APPLYING DATA-DRIVEN MODELING TO HYDROLOGIC FORECASTING……Page 333
REFERENCES……Page 335
INTRODUCTION……Page 338
ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORKS……Page 339
RAINFALL-RUNOFF RELATIONSHIPS……Page 342
CONCLUDING REMARKS……Page 345
REFERENCES……Page 346
INTRODUCTION……Page 351
Evolutionary Computation……Page 352
Evolutionary Algorithms……Page 353
Genetic Programming……Page 354
Forecast Based on Genetic Programming……Page 355
Updating……Page 356
CONCLUSIONS AND DISCUSSION……Page 358
REFERENCES……Page 359
INTRODUCTION……Page 360
Evolutionary Computing in Rainfall-runoff Simulation and Modeling……Page 361
Evolutionary Computing In Reservoir Control and Operation……Page 364
Evolutionary Computing in Groundwater Remediation……Page 365
Evolutionary Computing in Groundwater Sampling Design and Monitoring……Page 366
Evolutionary Computing in Inverse Modeling/Parameter Estimation……Page 367
Water Supply/Distribution Systems……Page 368
Evolutionary Computing in Urban Drainage/Wastewater Systems……Page 370
FURTHER READING……Page 371
REFERENCES……Page 372
INTRODUCTION……Page 378
FLOOD FORECASTING AS A PART OF THE FLOOD WARNING PROCESS……Page 379
Classification of Flood Forecasting Systems……Page 380
REAL-TIME DATA ACQUISITION……Page 381
HYDROLOGIC AND HYDRAULIC MODELS FOR SIMULATION……Page 382
FORECAST OF METEOROLOGICAL CONDITIONS……Page 384
UPDATING AND DATA ASSIMILATION……Page 385
EVALUATING FORECAST PERFORMANCE AND DEALING WITH UNCERTAINTIES……Page 386
ADVANCES IN FLOOD FORECASTING SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT……Page 388
CONCLUDING REMARKS……Page 389
REFERENCES……Page 390
INTRODUCTION: THE NEW CONTEXTS FOR HYDROLOGY……Page 393
NETWORK DISTRIBUTED DECISION SUPPORT SYSTEMS (NDDSSs)……Page 396
Judgment Engines……Page 397
HYDROLOGICAL MODELS AS FACT ENGINES……Page 399
SOFTWARE AGENTS FOR NDDSSs……Page 401
THE FUTURE FOR NDDSSs……Page 405
REFERENCES……Page 406
PART 3 Meteorology and Climatology……Page 407
INTRODUCTION……Page 408
EARTH’S ORBITAL EFFECT……Page 409
EFFECT OF THE ATMOSPHERE……Page 410
SOLAR RADIATION AT THE EARTH’S SURFACE……Page 411
REFLECTION OF SOLAR RADIATION AT THE EARTH’S SURFACE……Page 413
LONGWAVE ATMOSPHERIC RADIATION……Page 416
LONGWAVE OUTGOING RADIATION……Page 417
NET RADIATION……Page 418
TURBULENT HEAT FLUXES……Page 419
SUBSURFACE HEAT FLUX……Page 421
MEAN STATE OF THE GLOBAL ENERGY BALANCE……Page 422
MEAN STATE OF THE GLOBAL HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE……Page 424
REFERENCES……Page 425
INTRODUCTION……Page 428
THE ORIGINS OF PATTERN……Page 429
Manual Classification……Page 431
Correlation-based Approaches……Page 432
Eigenvector-based Approaches……Page 433
New Developments……Page 435
Assumptions and Limitations……Page 436
FURTHER READING……Page 437
REFERENCES……Page 438
INTRODUCTION……Page 439
LARGE-SCALE STORM SYSTEMS……Page 440
MESOSCALE STORM SYSTEMS……Page 442
SMALL-SCALE STORM SYSTEMS……Page 445
REFERENCES……Page 448
CLOUD FORMATION AND TYPES……Page 449
WATER PHASES, LATENT HEAT……Page 451
ATMOSPHERIC STABILITY AND CLOUD FORMATION……Page 452
WARM RAIN PROCESS……Page 453
BERGERON–FINDEISEN OR ICE PRECIPITATION FORMATION PROCESS……Page 454
Precipitation as Rain……Page 456
Precipitation as Snow……Page 459
Graupel and Hail……Page 460
CLOUD AND PRECIPITATION PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTIONS……Page 463
CLOUD SYSTEMS……Page 465
CONCLUDING REMARKS……Page 466
REFERENCES……Page 467
INTRODUCTION……Page 469
BACKGROUND……Page 470
THE ATMOSPHERIC BOUNDARY LAYER OVER LAND……Page 471
ATMOSPHERIC BOUNDARY-LAYER MODELING……Page 472
SURFACE FLUXES OVER LAND……Page 475
LAND SURFACE AND BOUNDARY-LAYER INTERACTIONS……Page 476
SUMMARY……Page 479
REFERENCES……Page 480
INTRODUCTION……Page 481
Monsoon Circulations……Page 482
OROGRAPHIC AIRFLOWS……Page 483
Seeder-feeder Mechanism……Page 484
Rainfall Redistribution……Page 485
CONCLUSIONS AND FURTHER DIRECTIONS……Page 486
REFERENCES……Page 487
INTRODUCTION……Page 488
Fall Speed of Drops……Page 489
Nucleation of Ice Particles……Page 490
Secondary Ice Particle Formation……Page 491
THE SCALE PROBLEM……Page 492
2-D Models……Page 493
Explicit or Bin-resolving Cloud Models……Page 494
Bulk Parameterizations……Page 495
CUMULUS PARAMETERIZATIONS……Page 497
REFERENCES……Page 498
32: Models of Global and Regional Climate……Page 502
QUASI-REALISTIC CLIMATE MODELS (SURROGATE REALITY)……Page 503
FREE SIMULATIONS AND FORCED SIMULATIONS FOR RECONSTRUCTION OF HISTORICAL CLIMATE……Page 506
CLIMATE CHANGE SIMULATIONS……Page 508
REGIONAL CLIMATE MODELING……Page 509
RECONSTRUCTIONS……Page 511
REGIONAL SCENARIOS……Page 512
CONCLUSIONS……Page 513
REFERENCES……Page 514
The Global Temperature Record……Page 516
A Natural Climate Variation?……Page 517
‘‘Fingerprint’’ Analysis……Page 518
CO2 and Past Climate……Page 519
Greenhouse Gases and Radiative Forcing……Page 521
Solar Variability……Page 522
Feedback Effects……Page 523
Climate Model Projections……Page 524
Consequences from Global Climate Change……Page 525
REFERENCES……Page 530
INTRODUCTION……Page 532
Global Energy Balance……Page 533
Dynamics of the Climate System……Page 534
The Past 1.5 Million Years……Page 535
Monitoring Recent Climate Behavior……Page 537
Temperature Trends……Page 538
Precipitation Trends……Page 539
Other Climatological Trends……Page 540
Human Interference with the Climate System……Page 541
Projected Climate Change for the Next Century……Page 543
REFERENCES……Page 547
PART 4 Hydrometeorology……Page 552
TYPES OF PRECIPITATION GAUGES……Page 553
ERRORS OF PRECIPITATION MEASUREMENTS……Page 554
CONSEQUENCES OF ERRORS OF PRECIPITATION MEASUREMENT……Page 555
CORRECTIONS OF PRECIPITATION MEASUREMENT ERRORS……Page 556
REFERENCES……Page 558
INTRODUCTION……Page 560
Deployment of a Network of Gauges……Page 561
Deriving Areal Average Values……Page 562
Rain gauge Deployment – Local Site Factors……Page 564
Snow……Page 566
REFERENCES……Page 567
INTRODUCTION: DEFINITION OF RETURN PERIOD……Page 569
Estimation of ( ) by Means of a Kernel Function……Page 570
Use of an Explicit Form for ( )……Page 571
Trends in Monthly Rainfall Totals……Page 573
Trends in Occurrence and Depth of Daily Rainfall……Page 574
TRENDS IN ANNUAL MAXIMUM RAINFALL INTENSITY OF DIFFERENT DURATIONS……Page 575
PROBLEMS WITH THE CONCEPT OF RETURN PERIOD IN THE PRESENCE OF TREND……Page 576
ANALYSIS OF RAINFALL EXTREMES: AN EXAMPLE……Page 577
Acknowledgments……Page 578
REFERENCES……Page 579
INTRODUCTION……Page 580
Fog Physics……Page 581
Types of Fog……Page 582
FOG CLIMATOLOGY……Page 585
Fog Collectors……Page 586
Fog Detectors……Page 587
QUANTIFYING FOG INTERCEPTION BY VEGETATION……Page 588
Evaluating Fog Deposition from Measurements of Net Precipitation……Page 589
Eddy Covariance Method……Page 590
Fog as a Hydrologic Input: Selected Examples……Page 591
MODELING FOG DEPOSITION……Page 595
CONCLUDING REMARKS……Page 597
REFERENCES……Page 598
Downwelling Shortwave Radiation……Page 604
Downwelling Long-wave Radiation ↓……Page 606
SURFACE RADIATION BALANCE……Page 607
REFERENCES……Page 609
INTRODUCTION……Page 610
Soil Physical Methods……Page 611
Eddy Covariance (EC) Method……Page 613
Flux-Profile Method……Page 615
Scintillometry Method……Page 616
Sap Flow……Page 617
Scaling up from Plant to Stand……Page 618
REFERENCES……Page 619
INTRODUCTION……Page 623
Feedback to the Atmosphere……Page 624
Pan Evaporation……Page 625
Reference Evapotranspiration……Page 626
DEFINITION OF REFERENCE……Page 627
Basis for Reference……Page 628
USE OF SIMPLIFIED EMPIRICAL EQUATIONS……Page 630
REFERENCES……Page 631
WHAT IS TRANSPIRATION?……Page 634
CONTROLS OF TRANSPIRATION……Page 636
Transpiration and Nutrient Uptake……Page 638
HOW IS TRANSPIRATION MEASURED?……Page 640
THERMAL DISSIPATION……Page 641
HOW WILL GLOBAL CHANGES INFLUENCE TRANSPIRATION?……Page 642
REFERENCES……Page 643
INTRODUCTION……Page 645
MEASURING INTERCEPTION……Page 646
Evaporation Rate from Wet Canopies……Page 647
Rainfall Distribution and Intensity……Page 648
MODELING INTERCEPTION……Page 649
REFERENCES……Page 650
Net Short-wave Radiation……Page 653
Available Energy……Page 655
Bulk (Mass) Transfer……Page 658
Energy Budget……Page 659
Combination Equations……Page 661
REFERENCES……Page 662
INTRODUCTION……Page 665
PREDICTING EVAPORATION……Page 667
Predicting Evaporation from Vegetated Sources……Page 668
Evaporation from Mixed Surfaces……Page 670
Actual Evaporation Based on Equilibrium Evaporation Concepts……Page 671
REFERENCES……Page 672
PART 5 Remote Sensing……Page 677
INTRODUCTION……Page 678
SCALAR RADIATIVE TRANSFER EQUATION……Page 680
Intensity Formalism……Page 681
Vector Radiative Transfer Equation……Page 682
SCATTERING AND PHASE FUNCTIONS……Page 683
APPLICATION TO PASSIVE MICROWAVE RADIOMETRY……Page 685
SOLUTIONS……Page 688
REFERENCES……Page 689
BACKGROUND……Page 691
STORED WATER AS A MODELED PRODUCT……Page 694
The Brightness Temperature of a Vegetation Covered Soil……Page 700
SATELLITE RADIOMETERS FOR SENSING OF SHALLOW SOIL MOISTURE AND SNOW WATER EQUIVALENT (SWE)……Page 703
Fundamentals of a Radiometer……Page 704
The Antenna……Page 705
Calibration……Page 706
Aperture Synthesis Radiometry……Page 707
Combined Active/Passive Microwave Sensing……Page 708
REFERENCES……Page 709
INTRODUCTION……Page 714
SCATTERING AND TRANSMISSION OF LASER RADIATION IN THE ATMOSPHERE……Page 715
LIDARS FOR MEASUREMENT OF CLOUD AND AEROSOL PROPERTIES……Page 716
LIDARS FOR MEASUREMENTS OF ATMOSPHERIC GASES……Page 721
LIDARS FOR MEASUREMENT OF WINDS……Page 724
FUTURE DIRECTIONS FOR LIDAR REMOTE SENSING……Page 726
REFERENCES……Page 727
Need for Information……Page 729
Feasibility……Page 730
Physical Principles……Page 732
Examples of Current Methodologies……Page 733
EVALUATION OF SATELLITE ESTIMATES USING SURFACE MEASUREMENTS……Page 735
LDAS and GLDAS……Page 737
International Satellite Land Surface Climatology Project (ISLSCP) Carbon Cycle Initiative……Page 738
FUTURE PROSPECTS……Page 739
Appendix A……Page 740
REFERENCES……Page 741
INTRODUCTION……Page 746
A BRIEF HISTORY IN REMOTE SENSING OF TURBULENT HEAT FLUXES……Page 747
THE SURFACE ENERGY BALANCE SYSTEM (SEBS) FOR ESTIMATION OF TURBULENT HEAT FLUXES AND EVAPORATION……Page 749
Determination of Evaporative Fraction Based On Energy Balance at Limiting Cases……Page 750
Determination of Sensible Heat Fluxes……Page 751
Determination of the Roughness Length for Heat Transfer……Page 752
The MOS Stability Correction Functions……Page 753
Determination of Turbulent Heat Fluxes and Actual Evaporation……Page 754
Difficulty in Determination of Aerodynamic Roughness Height……Page 755
Coupling with Large-Scale Numerical Weather Prediction Models……Page 756
Some SEBS Applications to Water Sources Management……Page 759
Using SEBS in a Data Assimilation System Environment……Page 761
Results for SEBS and Other Techniques When Applied to Experimental Data Sets……Page 762
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS……Page 763
REFERENCES……Page 764
INTRODUCTION……Page 768
Raman Lidar Method……Page 769
Uncertainty……Page 771
Monin–Obukhov Similarity……Page 772
Uncertainty……Page 774
Limitations of the Method……Page 775
Evapotranspiration Maps……Page 777
Spatial Structure of Evapotranspiration……Page 778
Determination of the Obukhov Length……Page 780
Stability Correction Functions……Page 781
SUMMARY……Page 782
REFERENCES……Page 783
INTRODUCTION……Page 786
THERMAL INFRARED RADIATION……Page 787
Atmospheric Effects……Page 788
Infrared Emissivity……Page 789
Energy and Moisture Balance……Page 791
Examples of Flux Estimation……Page 793
REFERENCES……Page 794
INTRODUCTION……Page 797
Permittivity and Dielectric Constant……Page 800
Brightness Temperature and Backscatter……Page 801
Temporal Edge Detection Approach……Page 803
HYDROLOGICAL APPLICATIONS OF SATELLITE FREEZE/THAW DETECTION……Page 804
SUMMARY AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS……Page 808
REFERENCES……Page 810
MICROWAVE REMOTE SENSING OF SURFACE SOIL MOISTURE……Page 812
Passive Microwave Techniques……Page 813
Active Microwave Methods……Page 814
LARGE-AREA MULTITEMPORAL AIRCRAFT MAPPING……Page 815
HYDRAULIC PROPERTIES OF SOILS……Page 816
Current Passive Systems……Page 817
Future Passive Systems……Page 819
SUMMARY……Page 820
REFERENCES……Page 821
Additional Resources……Page 822
INTRODUCTION……Page 824
FUNDAMENTALS OF THE REMOTE SENSING OF SNOW……Page 825
SNOW MAPPING……Page 828
Snow-water Equivalent……Page 831
SNOW WETNESS……Page 834
Future Directions and Conclusions……Page 835
REFERENCES……Page 836
PHYSICAL STRUCTURE AND TEMPORAL EVOLUTION OF SEA ICE AND ICE SHEETS……Page 843
Glacial Ice and the Major Ice Sheets……Page 844
MICROWAVE REMOTE SENSING APPLICATIONS……Page 845
Relevant Microwave Electromagnetic Properties of Ice and Snow……Page 846
Electromagnetic Scattering and Emission Models……Page 848
Geophysical Inversions: Sea-ice Concentration and Extent……Page 849
Observations and Results……Page 851
Optical Observation of Ice Sheets and Sea Ice……Page 854
Visible and Near-infrared Imaging……Page 855
INFRARED ICE TEMPERATURE OBSERVATION……Page 856
ICESat (LASER ALTIMETRY)……Page 858
FURTHER READING……Page 859
REFERENCES……Page 860
INTRODUCTION……Page 865
FINDING APPROPRIATE DATA FOR MAPPING LAND COVER……Page 866
SUPERVISED AND UNSUPERVISED CLASSIFIERS……Page 869
DISTRIBUTION-FREE ALGORITHMS……Page 870
ALGORITHM COMPARISONS……Page 872
CONTINUOUS REPRESENTATIONS OF LAND COVER……Page 873
CHANGE DETECTION……Page 876
CASE STUDY–MAPPING LAND COVER FOR ASSESSING STREAM HEALTH IN THE CHESAPEAKE BAY WATERSHED……Page 878
REFERENCES……Page 881
INTRODUCTION……Page 886
LIDAR REMOTE SENSING……Page 887
DESIRED LAND SURFACE PARAMETERS FOR HYDROLOGICAL MODELING AND MONITORING……Page 888
Canopy Height……Page 889
Canopy Cover and LAI……Page 890
Large Tree Density and Basal Area……Page 891
GROUND TOPOGRAPHY FROM LIDAR……Page 892
Acknowledgments……Page 895
REFERENCES……Page 896
INTRODUCTION……Page 898
SOIL BIOGEOCHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS……Page 899
SOIL MOISTURE……Page 901
SOIL PHYSICAL PROPERTIES……Page 903
MIXED SOIL AND VEGETATION SPECTRA……Page 904
SOIL-VEGETATION-MOISTURE OPTICS……Page 906
COMBINED MOISTURE AND VEGETATION INDICES……Page 907
DISCUSSION……Page 909
REFERENCES……Page 910
INTRODUCTION……Page 913
Principles of Satellite Radar Altimetry……Page 914
Technique and Validation……Page 916
Advantages and Limitations: Accuracy, Resolution, and Target Size……Page 917
Applications……Page 919
Historical Perspective……Page 920
Limitations and Advantages……Page 921
Applications……Page 922
Applications……Page 923
REFERENCES……Page 924
Definition……Page 928
Importance……Page 929
Conventional Measurement Techniques……Page 930
Introduction and Previous Work……Page 932
Satellite or Aircraft-based Measurement of Hydraulic Variables……Page 934
Remote Estimation of Discharge……Page 937
Frequency of Satellite Observation……Page 941
REFERENCES……Page 944
INTRODUCTION……Page 947
BACKGROUND……Page 948
SUSPENDED SEDIMENTS……Page 949
ALGAE/CHLOROPHYLL……Page 950
CONCLUSIONS……Page 954
REFERENCES……Page 955
BASIC RADAR PRINCIPLES……Page 958
Radar Equation for Distributed Scatterers……Page 960
Radar Parameters……Page 961
Meteorological Interpretation……Page 962
Radar Rainfall Measurement……Page 967
Uncertainty of Radar Rainfall Estimates……Page 969
REFERENCES……Page 971
SATELLITES, SENSORS, AND DATA……Page 972
Sensors……Page 973
Satellites……Page 974
Strengths and Weaknesses……Page 975
TRANSFORMING OBSERVATIONS INTO ESTIMATES……Page 976
PMW-Based Data Sets……Page 977
Combination Algorithms……Page 978
EXAMPLES……Page 979
EVALUATION……Page 982
FUTURE PROSPECTS……Page 983
Appendix 1: ACRONYMS USED IN THE TABLES……Page 984
Appendix 2: ARCHIVE LOCATIONS REFERENCED IN THE TABLES……Page 985
REFERENCES……Page 986
INTRODUCTION……Page 988
WATER VAPOR……Page 989
Microwave Radiometry……Page 990
GPS……Page 992
Thermal Infrared……Page 993
Sun Photometer……Page 994
Conclusions: Water Vapor……Page 995
CLOUDS……Page 996
Cloud Radar……Page 997
Thermal Infrared……Page 998
Lidar……Page 999
INTEGRATED APPROACHES……Page 1000
Acknowledgments……Page 1001
REFERENCES……Page 1002
PART 6 Soils……Page 1004
INTRODUCTION……Page 1005
SCALE-DEPENDENCY OF SOIL PROPERTIES AND PROCESSES……Page 1007
SPATIAL SCALING APPROACHES……Page 1008
Local Scale……Page 1009
Regional Scale……Page 1011
CONCLUDING REMARKS……Page 1012
NEURAL MULTISTEP……Page 1013
REFERENCES……Page 1014
INTRODUCTION……Page 1016
Swelling Soils and Other Porous Media……Page 1017
Material Balance……Page 1018
Equilibrium and Flow of Water in Saturated Swelling Systems……Page 1019
Equilibrium and Flow of Water in Unsaturated Swelling Systems……Page 1021
Extension to Two and Three Dimensions……Page 1022
Scale and Measurement……Page 1023
Material Balance in Swelling Systems……Page 1024
The Components of the Total Water Potential……Page 1025
The Hydraulic Conductivity Characteristic……Page 1026
FURTHER READING……Page 1027
REFERENCES……Page 1028
INTRODUCTION……Page 1032
Origin of Hydrophobicity in Soils……Page 1033
HYDROPHOBICITY EFFECTS ON SOIL WATER MOVEMENT……Page 1034
Infiltration and Overland Flow……Page 1035
Preferential Flow (Including Fingered Flow)……Page 1037
Effects on the Three-dimensional Distribution and Dynamics of Soil Moisture……Page 1038
Effects on Streamflow Generation and Patterns (cf. Chapter 122, Rainfall-runoff Modeling: Introduction, Volume 3)……Page 1039
EVALUATION AND MODELING HYDROLOGICAL EFFECTS OF SOIL HYDROPHOBICITY……Page 1040
REFERENCES……Page 1042
INTRODUCTION……Page 1046
Liquid-phase Transport Processes……Page 1047
Formalisms for Modeling Solute Transport……Page 1048
LIMITATIONS OF THE CONVECTIVE DISPERSIVE TRANSPORT MODEL……Page 1049
Limitations of the CDE in Structured Media……Page 1050
Modeling Approach Versus Structural Variability……Page 1051
Stream Tube Models (STM)……Page 1052
Stochastic-continuum Models……Page 1053
CONCLUSIONS……Page 1054
REFERENCES……Page 1055
Water Uptake as a Passive Process……Page 1059
Water Uptake in Relation to Hydraulic and Osmotic Properties……Page 1060
Aquaporins……Page 1061
Environmental Signals……Page 1062
Internal Signals……Page 1063
Regulation at the Level of the Root and Roots Systems……Page 1064
Single Root Models……Page 1065
Weighing Lysimeter……Page 1067
Root Uptake Ability and Plant-water Status……Page 1068
REFERENCES……Page 1069
SOIL FREEZING AND THAWING……Page 1073
WATER MOVEMENT IN FROZEN SOILS……Page 1075
Large-scale Effects of Frozen Soil on the Hydrology……Page 1076
FROST EFFECT ON OTHER SURFACE PROCESSES……Page 1077
FURTHER READING……Page 1078
REFERENCES……Page 1079
INTRODUCTION……Page 1081
The Electrical Properties of Water – Pure and in Soil……Page 1082
TDR……Page 1083
Capacitance Measurements……Page 1084
GPR……Page 1085
Active Microwave Remote Sensing……Page 1087
Passive Microwave Remote Sensing……Page 1088
Neutron Thermalization or Neutron Moderation……Page 1089
Site Replication……Page 1090
REFERENCES……Page 1091
INTRODUCTION……Page 1093
TENSIOMETRY……Page 1094
Measurement Range……Page 1095
Tensiometer Designs……Page 1096
Measurement Practice……Page 1098
GYPSUM BLOCKS AND OTHER REFERENCE POROUS MEDIA……Page 1100
VAPOR PRESSURE–BASED METHODS AND THERMOCOUPLE PSYCHROMETRY……Page 1102
CONCLUDING REMARKS……Page 1103
REFERENCES……Page 1105
INTRODUCTION……Page 1107
Continuum Approach, Darcy’s Law, Richards’ Equation……Page 1108
PARAMETERIZATION OF HYDRAULIC FUNCTIONS……Page 1110
HYSTERESIS……Page 1112
DYNAMIC EFFECTS……Page 1113
Spatial and Temporal Variability……Page 1115
Influence of Measurement Errors on Spatial Data Analysis……Page 1116
Mean and Effective Soil Hydraulic Properties……Page 1117
CONCLUDING REMARKS……Page 1118
REFERENCES……Page 1119
INTRODUCTION……Page 1124
The Purpose of Hydraulic Measurements……Page 1125
Classification of Methods……Page 1126
Indirect Estimation of Hydraulic Functions……Page 1128
Laboratory Methods……Page 1129
Field Methods……Page 1134
Integrated Determination by Inverse Modeling……Page 1139
REFERENCES……Page 1140
SEMIPHYSICAL MODELS……Page 1147
EMPIRICAL MODELS……Page 1148
Parametric PTFs……Page 1149
CONCLUSION……Page 1150
REFERENCES……Page 1151
INTRODUCTION……Page 1153
THE PROCESS OF PARAMETER ESTIMATION……Page 1154
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND……Page 1155
MATHEMATICAL DEVELOPMENT……Page 1156
FREQUENTIST VERSUS BAYESIAN APPROACH……Page 1157
MANUAL VERSUS AUTOMATIC SOLUTION ALGORITHMS……Page 1158
Traditional First-Order Approximation……Page 1160
Uniform Grid Sampling – Response Surface Analysis……Page 1161
Monte Carlo Sampling of Posterior Distribution……Page 1162
ADVANCES IN INVERSE MODELLING……Page 1165
SOFTWARE LINKS……Page 1168
REFERENCES……Page 1169
INTRODUCTION……Page 1173
Solute Transport……Page 1174
Numerical Solution of Richards Equation……Page 1175
Numerical Solution of the Transport Equation……Page 1176
Matrix Solvers……Page 1177
Available Model for Unsaturated Zone……Page 1178
CONCLUSIONS……Page 1179
REFERENCES……Page 1181
INTRODUCTION……Page 1183
Representing Uncertainty with Probability Distributions……Page 1184
People-driven Approach……Page 1186
Components of Model Uncertainty……Page 1187
Structural Uncertainty……Page 1188
UNCERTAINTY PROPAGATION……Page 1189
Monte Carlo Method……Page 1190
Partitioning Property……Page 1191
Scale Dependence of Models……Page 1192
CONCLUSIONS……Page 1193
REFERENCES……Page 1194
PART 7 Erosion and Sedimentation……Page 1198
80: Erosion and Sediment Transport by Water on Hillslopes……Page 1199
INTERRILL EROSION AND SEDIMENT TRANSPORT……Page 1200
RILL EROSION AND SEDIMENT TRANSPORT……Page 1202
GULLY EROSION AND SEDIMENT TRANSPORT……Page 1203
MODELING HILLSLOPE EROSION AND SEDIMENT TRANSPORT……Page 1204
REFERENCES……Page 1205
DEFINITIONS, TERMS, AND CLASSIFICATION OF EROSION MONITORING……Page 1209
Running Water……Page 1210
EROSION BY WIND……Page 1214
MONITORING OF EROSION IN CONTROLLED SYSTEMS……Page 1215
LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS……Page 1217
REFERENCES……Page 1218
INTRODUCTION……Page 1220
THE UNIVERSAL SOIL LOSS EQUATION……Page 1221
REPRESENTATIONS OF RILL AND INTERRILL PROCESSES……Page 1222
The Sediment Continuity Equation……Page 1223
Forms of the Sediment Continuity Equation……Page 1224
REFERENCES……Page 1225
INTRODUCTION……Page 1227
Floc Structural and Behavioral Issues……Page 1228
CONCLUSIONS……Page 1234
REFERENCES……Page 1236
INTRODUCTION……Page 1238
Overbank Deposition……Page 1239
Contaminant Deposition……Page 1240
Fallout Radionuclides……Page 1241
Heavy Metals……Page 1242
1D Sedimentation Models……Page 1243
Post-event Field Surveys……Page 1244
Sediment Traps……Page 1245
Introduction……Page 1246
Models of Lateral Sediment Transfer……Page 1247
Two-dimensional Mathematical Modeling of Overbank Flow and Sediment Deposition……Page 1248
Introduction……Page 1252
Average Sedimentation Rates During the Past Centuries……Page 1253
Sedimentation Rates over the Past Decennia……Page 1254
Contemporary Sedimentation Rates……Page 1255
Heavy Metal Deposition……Page 1263
Deposition Patterns……Page 1264
Regional Controls of Sediment Deposition Rates……Page 1268
Floodplain Deposition of Heavy Metals……Page 1269
Impact of Climate Change and Land Use and River Management……Page 1272
CONCLUSIONS AND PROSPECTS……Page 1273
REFERENCES……Page 1274
Some Basic Facts……Page 1280
Sediment Flux to the Oceans……Page 1282
The Global Pattern of Sediment Yield and Its Controls……Page 1284
The Role of Drainage Basin Area……Page 1289
Temporal Variability in Suspended Sediment Yields……Page 1291
The Context……Page 1295
Sediment Budgets……Page 1296
Establishing Sediment Budgets……Page 1298
REFERENCES……Page 1299
BED-LOAD MEASUREMENT……Page 1302
Automatic Sampling……Page 1304
Turbidity Monitoring……Page 1305
INVESTIGATING SUSPENDED SEDIMENT PROPERTIES AND SEDIMENT SOURCE TRACING……Page 1307
REFERENCES……Page 1309
INTRODUCTION……Page 1312
APPROACHES TO SEDIMENT YIELD MODELING……Page 1314
SEDIMENT YIELD PREDICTION……Page 1319
FURTHER READING……Page 1320
REFERENCES……Page 1321
INTRODUCTION……Page 1324
IMPACTS……Page 1325
Impact on Water Supply Reliability……Page 1326
Environmental Impacts……Page 1327
PREDICTION OF RESERVOIR SEDIMENTATION……Page 1328
RESERVOIR SEDIMENTATION MANAGEMENT……Page 1329
FURTHER READING……Page 1332
REFERENCES……Page 1335
INTRODUCTION……Page 1337
Dissolved Loads……Page 1338
Particulate Loads……Page 1339
Fe and Mn Oxides……Page 1342
Organic and Inorganic Carbon……Page 1343
Carbonates, Sulfides, and Refractory Minerals……Page 1345
Radionuclide Associations with Particulate Components……Page 1346
Europe……Page 1348
Asia……Page 1349
Future Trends in River Research……Page 1350
REFERENCES……Page 1351
SCIENTIFIC QUESTIONS……Page 1355
METHODS AND TECHNIQUES……Page 1356
Holocene Trends……Page 1357
Calibration of Lake Records……Page 1360
REFERENCES……Page 1364
PART 8 Water Quality and Biogeochemistry……Page 1369
INTRODUCTION……Page 1370
Physical and Chemical Aspects of Water Quality……Page 1371
Biological and Microbiological Aspects of Water Quality……Page 1372
NATURAL RIVER WATER QUALITY: ORIGINS, PATHWAYS, AND CONTROLS OF RIVER CHEMISTRY……Page 1373
Global Scale Variability of Water Chemistry……Page 1375
Longitudinal and Transversal Profiles of River Chemistry……Page 1378
Concentrations Variations with River Discharge……Page 1379
Water-quality Trends and Interannual Variations……Page 1380
REFERENCES……Page 1381
INTRODUCTION……Page 1383
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF WATER QUALITY MONITORING……Page 1384
MONITORING PROGRAM DESIGN……Page 1385
MONITORING IN THE FIELD……Page 1388
Water Samples……Page 1389
Sediment……Page 1393
Programs Based on Physical and Chemical Measurements……Page 1394
Biological Monitoring of Water Quality……Page 1398
Monitoring Toxic Pollution……Page 1399
DATA HANDLING AND REPORTING……Page 1400
Analytical Quality Control……Page 1401
REFERENCES……Page 1402
INTRODUCTION……Page 1405
LANDSCAPE ALTERATION……Page 1409
Agriculture……Page 1410
Irrigated Lands……Page 1413
Urbanization……Page 1414
Dams and River Channel Alteration……Page 1416
OTHER DIRECT EFFECTS ON WATER QUALITY……Page 1417
Waste Generation, Treatment, and Disposal – Air, Land, and Water……Page 1419
REFERENCES……Page 1420
Point versus Nonpoint Source Pollution……Page 1422
A Bit of the Legal History, for the United States……Page 1424
ASSESSMENT OF POINT AND NONPOINT SOURCE POLLUTION……Page 1426
Uncertainty……Page 1427
Example I: Nonpoint Source Pollution, the Fresno Case Study……Page 1428
Example II: Point Source Pollution, Three Manufactured Gas Plants……Page 1430
Example III: Nonpoint Source Pollution, the Forested Areas of Tenerife……Page 1431
EPILOGUE AND FOOD FOR THOUGHT……Page 1432
REFERENCES……Page 1433
ACIDIC DEPOSITION……Page 1435
Effects of Acidic Deposition on Forest Ecosystems……Page 1439
Acidic Deposition Stress to Trees……Page 1442
Effects of Acidic Deposition on Aquatic Ecosystems……Page 1443
ECOSYSTEM RECOVERY……Page 1444
RECOVERY OF ACID-SENSITIVE ECOSYSTEMS WITH FUTURE DECREASES IN EMISSIONS……Page 1447
REFERENCES……Page 1449
INTRODUCTION……Page 1452
NUTRIENT CYCLING WITHIN TERRESTRIAL AND AQUATIC SYSTEMS……Page 1453
PHOSPHORUS AND NITROGEN CYCLES IN FRESHWATER ECOSYSTEMS……Page 1454
Types of Phosphorus……Page 1455
Types of Nitrogen……Page 1456
The Terrestrial–Aquatic Interface……Page 1458
Regional-scale Relationship Between Point and Diffuse Sources……Page 1459
Contrasting the Sources and Behavior of N and P: Catchment-scale Implications……Page 1460
Succession of Eutrophication……Page 1463
Remediation via Nutrient Reduction……Page 1464
River Management and Restoration……Page 1466
MODELING……Page 1467
REFERENCES……Page 1468
INTRODUCTION……Page 1471
Urban Surface Water Pollutants……Page 1472
Construction and Urban Runoff……Page 1474
Introduction……Page 1475
Receiving Water Impacts……Page 1476
Different Kinds of Actions……Page 1477
Wastewater Effluent Reuse……Page 1479
FUTURE PERSPECTIVES……Page 1480
REFERENCES……Page 1482
INTRODUCTION……Page 1484
Viruses……Page 1485
Protozoa……Page 1487
Helminths……Page 1488
Surface Waters……Page 1489
Subsurface Environments……Page 1491
REFERENCES……Page 1493
SALT ON THE LAND……Page 1495
SALINIZATION……Page 1496
Units of Salinity Measurement……Page 1497
Salt Balance in Soil……Page 1498
Effects on Plants……Page 1500
River Salinization……Page 1501
Lake and Wetland Salinization……Page 1502
MANAGEMENT OF SALINITY……Page 1503
Engineering Options……Page 1504
Agronomic and Vegetation Options……Page 1505
Catchment Experiments……Page 1506
Modeling Approaches……Page 1507
Statistical Approaches……Page 1509
REFERENCES……Page 1510
SCIENCE AND ART……Page 1514
PRACTICAL COMPUTER CODES……Page 1515
CLARIFICATION OF APPLICATION PROTOCOLS……Page 1517
REFERENCES……Page 1519
PART 9 Ecological and Hydrological Interactions……Page 1521
INTRODUCTION……Page 1522
Conceptual Developments……Page 1523
River Drainage Networks……Page 1526
River Drainage Networks with Standing-Water Connections……Page 1528
River-connected Oxbow Lakes and Floodplain Lakes……Page 1529
River-connected Lake Chains and Lake Outflows……Page 1530
Closed Lake Basins and Wetlands……Page 1531
Aquatic Productivity, Nutrient Cycling, and Ecosystem Connectivity……Page 1532
Dispersal and Colonization……Page 1533
Functional Resilience and Species Dispersal……Page 1534
Connectivity and Vulnerability to Invasive Nonnative Species……Page 1535
CONCLUSIONS……Page 1536
REFERENCES……Page 1537
Gross Primary Production……Page 1544
Net Primary Production……Page 1545
Abiotic Controls on NPP……Page 1546
Evapotranspiration: The Return of Water to the Atmosphere……Page 1548
Soil Organic Matter Decomposition……Page 1549
Abiotic Controls on Decomposition……Page 1550
DEVIATIONS FROM ‘‘THE MODEL’’: BIOTIC REGULATION OF C AND WATER CYCLES……Page 1551
Grazing……Page 1552
Plant Pathogens……Page 1553
Biogeochemical Constraints on Ecosystem Processes: NPP……Page 1554
Land Transformations……Page 1555
Alterations to Global Biogeochemical Cycles……Page 1558
REFERENCES……Page 1559
INTRODUCTION……Page 1562
CONCEPTUAL OVERVIEW OF ECOHYDROLOGIC SYSTEMS……Page 1563
ECOHYDROLOGIC INTERACTIONS AT THE PATCH SCALE……Page 1564
Stochastic Water Budget Approaches……Page 1565
Ecosystem Carbon Budget and Ecological Community (Gap) Models……Page 1566
SMALL CATCHMENT RESEARCH……Page 1567
Incorporating Hillslope Hydrology to Ecosystem Models……Page 1568
Incorporating Disturbance and Management……Page 1569
NEXT STEPS: INTEGRATION WITH SOCIETAL PROCESSES AND APPLICATIONS TO ECOSYSTEM MANAGEMENT……Page 1571
REFERENCES……Page 1572
GLOBAL EXTENT OF WATER LIMITATIONS ON THE BIOSPHERE……Page 1576
Global Biospheric Patterns and Hydrologic Limits……Page 1577
Hydrometeorological Principles of Vegetation Limits on Evapotranspiration……Page 1578
REMOTE SENSING PRINCIPLES FOR EVAPOTRANSPIRATION……Page 1579
Optical/Thermal Sensors……Page 1580
Active/Passive Microwave Sensors……Page 1582
Regional to Global Scaling……Page 1584
REFERENCES……Page 1587
INTRODUCTION……Page 1590
CONCEPTUAL AND MATHEMATICAL REPRESENTATION OF SUBSURFACE BIOMASS……Page 1592
PHYSICAL PROCESSES……Page 1593
Straining and Filtration……Page 1594
Size Exclusion……Page 1595
Understanding the Interaction Potential: is the DLVO Appropriate for Microbes?……Page 1596
Recent Progress on Modeling and Understanding Microbial Adsorption and Adhesion……Page 1598
Upscaling the Smoluchowski Equation to the Darcy Scale……Page 1599
Predation……Page 1601
OVERVIEW OF MICROBIAL TRANSPORT FIELD EXPERIMENTS……Page 1602
Apparent Decrease in Attachment with Distance……Page 1604
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS……Page 1605
REFERENCES……Page 1606
NOMENCLATURE……Page 1612
INTRODUCTION……Page 1614
OXYGEN TOLERANCE……Page 1615
TERMINAL ELECTRON-ACCEPTING PROCESSES……Page 1616
REGIONAL AQUIFERS……Page 1618
DISTURBED ENVIRONMENTS……Page 1620
Acknowledgments……Page 1622
REFERENCES……Page 1623
CLASSIFICATION OF WETLANDS BASED ON VEGETATION……Page 1626
Freshwater Wetlands……Page 1627
Estuarine Wetlands……Page 1628
Morphological Adaptations……Page 1631
Metabolic Adaptations……Page 1632
Plant Productivity……Page 1633
Hydrology-based Classification System for Wetlands……Page 1635
Treatment Wetlands……Page 1636
Mitigation Wetlands……Page 1638
REFERENCES……Page 1639
INTRODUCTION……Page 1643
STRATIFICATION……Page 1644
MIXING……Page 1648
Cold Monomictic……Page 1652
An Example of Stratification in a North Temperate Dimictic lake……Page 1653
BENTHIC AND PELAGIC COUPLING……Page 1654
REFERENCES……Page 1657
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND……Page 1660
RESERVOIRS COMPARED TO LAKES……Page 1661
AGING OF RESERVOIRS……Page 1662
MODELING THE PROCESSES IN RESERVOIR……Page 1663
REFERENCES……Page 1664
INTRODUCTION……Page 1665
TOOLS FOR RECONSTRUCTION OF ENVIRONMENTAL HISTORY……Page 1666
Statistical Tools……Page 1667
Chronology……Page 1668
Lake Ontogeny……Page 1669
Response of Lakes to Natural Disturbance……Page 1671
Climate Change……Page 1672
Human Impacts on Lakes and Their Watersheds……Page 1675
CONCLUSIONS/FUTURE OF THE DISCIPLINE……Page 1681
REFERENCES……Page 1682
PART 10 Rainfall-runoff Processes……Page 1688
INTRODUCTION……Page 1689
Physical Basis of Models for Infiltration Under Rainfall……Page 1691
Computational Forms for Infiltration Models……Page 1692
The Surface Water Flow Equations……Page 1694
Solving the Kinematic Wave Equations……Page 1695
SURFACE AND SOIL WATER INTERACTION……Page 1696
Spatial Variability and its Effects on Runoff Processes……Page 1697
SUMMARY……Page 1698
REFERENCES……Page 1699
INTRODUCTION……Page 1701
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF IDEAS PERTAINING TO SUBSURFACE STORMFLOW……Page 1702
Preferential Flow……Page 1704
Subsurface Flow Initiation……Page 1705
Topographic Control on Lateral Subsurface Flow……Page 1707
Thresholds and Nonlinearities……Page 1708
OUTLOOK AND CONCLUSION……Page 1710
REFERENCES……Page 1711
NUTRIENT DYNAMICS……Page 1715
TRANSPORT MODELING – TRANSIENT STORAGE……Page 1716
RESIDENCE TIME AND CONNECTION TO THE CATCHMENT……Page 1717
HYDROLOGIC PROCESSES……Page 1718
REFERENCES……Page 1719
Topography……Page 1722
Built-up Areas……Page 1723
FLOW DELIVERY MECHANISMS……Page 1724
SOURCE AREA OF SNOWMELT RUNOFF……Page 1726
FLOW IN STREAM CHANNELS……Page 1727
SNOW MANAGEMENT FOR RUNOFF AUGMENTATION……Page 1728
REFERENCES……Page 1730
INTRODUCTION……Page 1731
SPATIAL AND TEMPORAL SOURCES OF STORM RUNOFF – THE ROLE OF LANDSCAPE ELEMENTS……Page 1732
TOPOGRAPHIC INDICES……Page 1733
HYDROLOGICAL LANDSCAPE ANALYSIS……Page 1735
LANDSCAPE ELEMENTS IN HYDROLOGICAL MODELING……Page 1737
CONCLUDING REMARKS……Page 1738
REFERENCES……Page 1739
THE ISOTOPE HYDROGRAPH SEPARATION APPROACH……Page 1742
ASSUMPTIONS UNDERLYING THE IHS TECHNIQUE……Page 1743
The Influence of in-channel Processes on Basin Isotopic Response……Page 1745
The Fate of Event Water Falling on Saturated Areas……Page 1746
The Scale Dependence of IHS Results……Page 1747
Estimation of Water Residence Times at the Point, Slope, and Basin Scales Using Environmental Isotopic Tracers……Page 1748
Integration of Isotopic and Geochemical Tracers and Hydrometric Techniques with Greater Consideration of Topographic Properties……Page 1749
REFERENCES……Page 1750
HYDROLOGICAL FEATURES OF DEVELOPED AREAS INTRODUCTION……Page 1754
Imperviousness and Constructed Land Cover……Page 1755
Drainage Infrastructure of Urban Development……Page 1756
Delineation of Developed Catchments……Page 1757
Urban and Suburban Hydrological Storages……Page 1758
Runoff Timing and Volume……Page 1759
Runoff Generation and Routing……Page 1760
Runoff in Minor and Major Systems……Page 1762
Drainage Inlet Runoff……Page 1765
Collected Urban Runoff, Channel Flow, and Receiving Waters……Page 1771
Spatially Lumped Flow Paths……Page 1772
Simulation Model Synthesis……Page 1774
Advances in Model Simulation……Page 1777
Ecological Stresses Associated with Urban Runoff……Page 1778
REFERENCES……Page 1779
CONTROLS ON STORM RUNOFF GENERATION……Page 1783
PLOT SCALE: LAND USE AND OVERLAND FLOW ON AGRICULTURAL LAND……Page 1784
TILLAGE IMPACTS AND THE GENERATION OF SATURATION-EXCESS OVERLAND FLOW……Page 1786
SCALING UP FROM HILL SLOPES TO CATCHMENTS……Page 1787
REFERENCES……Page 1789
INTRODUCTION……Page 1791
The Forest Hydrologic Cycle……Page 1792
Evaluating Catchment Hydrologic Effects of Forest Disturbance or Removal……Page 1793
Forest Harvesting Techniques……Page 1794
Effects of Forest Thinning on Rainfall Interception and Net Precipitation……Page 1796
Effects of Thinning and Selective Logging on Soil Water, Transpiration, and Water Yield……Page 1797
Effects of Forest Clear-felling and Regrowth on Annual and Seasonal Water Yield……Page 1799
Effects of Forest Harvesting and Road Construction on Catchment Response to Rainfall……Page 1801
MINIMIZING ADVERSE HYDROLOGIC IMPACTS OF FORESTRY OPERATIONS……Page 1804
REFERENCES……Page 1805
FIRE REGIMES AND HYDROLOGY……Page 1808
Water Repellency……Page 1810
Scale of Effects……Page 1811
REFERENCES……Page 1812
OBJECTIVE AND SCOPE OF THIS ARTICLE……Page 1815
JUSTIFICATION FOR INTERSITE COMPARISON STUDIES……Page 1816
HOW INTERSITE COMPARISON HELPS DISCRIMINATE AMONG ALTERNATIVE HYDROLOGIC MECHANISMS……Page 1817
Replicating Hypothesis Tests and Expanding Sample Size……Page 1818
Making Novel Intersite Comparisons……Page 1819
New Ancillary Data to Refine Hypotheses……Page 1821
Identifying a Question……Page 1823
Selecting, Accessing, and Merging Datasets……Page 1825
Choosing Statistics for Comparison of Rainfall and Runoff Data……Page 1827
REFERENCES……Page 1829
PART 11 Rainfall-runoff Modeling……Page 1831
The Many Purposes of Rainfall-runoff Modeling……Page 1832
A Classification of Rainfall-runoff Models……Page 1833
Process Descriptions in Rainfall-runoff Models……Page 1834
A Short History of Rainfall-runoff Modeling……Page 1837
The Problem of Model Calibration……Page 1838
Predicting the Effects of Change……Page 1839
The Future of Rainfall-runoff Modeling……Page 1840
REFERENCES……Page 1842
Definition of Real-time Flood Forecasting Systems……Page 1844
Operational Systems……Page 1845
RAINFALL-RUNOFF MODELS FOR REAL-TIME FLOOD FORECASTING……Page 1846
The Different Types of Real-time Adjustment……Page 1851
The Kalman Filter……Page 1852
The Definition of Forecasting Uncertainty……Page 1853
Communicating Forecasting Uncertainty to the Users……Page 1857
The Upper Po River Flood Forecasting System……Page 1860
The Reno River Flood Forecasting System……Page 1861
REFERENCES……Page 1866
THE NEED FOR FLOW ROUTING AND INUNDATION MODELS……Page 1872
FLOOD WAVE HYDRAULICS……Page 1873
Full and Simplified Solutions of the One-dimensional St. Venant Equation……Page 1876
Hydrological Storage Models……Page 1879
Flood Routing for Overbank Flows……Page 1880
INUNDATION PREDICTION MODELS……Page 1881
DATA SOURCES FOR INUNDATION MODELS AND MODEL DATA ASSIMILATION……Page 1884
Initial Condition Data……Page 1885
Topography Data……Page 1886
Friction Data……Page 1887
Model Validation Data……Page 1888
UNCERTAINTIES IN FLOOD ROUTING AND INUNDATION PREDICTION……Page 1890
REFERENCES……Page 1892
CONCEPTS OF FLOOD FREQUENCY……Page 1898
Flood Frequency Distributions……Page 1899
Unit Hydrograph……Page 1900
Calculating Losses in Event Models……Page 1901
Design Inputs……Page 1902
DERIVED DISTRIBUTIONS AS A GENERALIZATION OF RAINFALL-RUNOFF MODELING……Page 1903
CONTINUOUS SIMULATION METHODS……Page 1905
Point Rainfall Models……Page 1906
Spatial and Cluster Models……Page 1907
Distribution Function Models……Page 1908
INVESTIGATING CONTROLS ON THE FLOOD REGIME……Page 1913
CALIBRATION……Page 1915
GENERALIZED PARAMETERIZATION……Page 1916
FLOOD ROUTING AND HYDRAULIC CALCULATIONS……Page 1919
Uncertainty at Gauged Catchments……Page 1920
Rainfall-runoff Modeling……Page 1921
Continuous Simulation……Page 1922
REFERENCES……Page 1925
Difficulties with Lowflow Analyses……Page 1929
THEORETICAL MODELS OF GROUNDWATER DISCHARGE……Page 1930
Solutions to the Boussinesq Equation……Page 1931
Power Relationship and the Boussinesq Solutions……Page 1932
Appropriateness of Boussinesq Solutions……Page 1933
Linear Reservoir Models……Page 1934
Alternative Models and Indices……Page 1936
Estimating Hydrogeologic Indices from Watershed Characteristics……Page 1937
REFERENCES……Page 1938
INTRODUCTION……Page 1940
CHANGING SPATIAL SCALE……Page 1942
TRADITIONAL DISTRIBUTED FORMULATIONS……Page 1943
The Freeze–Harlan (FH) Blueprint and Derived Models……Page 1944
TOPMODEL……Page 1945
TOPOG and THALES……Page 1947
THE REW APPROACH……Page 1948
THE CLOSURE PROBLEM AND HYDROLOGY……Page 1950
DISCUSSION……Page 1951
GIS, DATABASES, AND DEM DATA IN DISTRIBUTED MODELING……Page 1952
REFERENCES……Page 1953
INTRODUCTION……Page 1957
TF MODELS IN HYDROLOGY……Page 1958
Physically Interpretable Parameters……Page 1959
TF Manipulation and Block Diagrams……Page 1960
Discrete-time, Sampled Data TF Models……Page 1961
Discrete-time TF Model Identification and Estimation……Page 1962
Rainfall-flow Modeling……Page 1964
Aggregated Dead Zone (ADZ) Modeling of Tracer Data……Page 1966
NONSTATIONARY AND NONLINEAR TF MODELS……Page 1968
Nonlinear State-Dependent Parameter (SDP) Models……Page 1969
REFERENCES……Page 1970
129: Rainfall-runoff Modeling for Integrated Basin Management……Page 1973
DEDICATED SYSTEMS……Page 1974
FRAMEWORK MODELING SYSTEMS……Page 1975
APPLICATIONS……Page 1976
REFERENCES……Page 1977
INTRODUCTION……Page 1979
Fuzzy Numbers……Page 1980
FUZZY HYDROLOGICAL DATA AND MODEL PARAMETERS……Page 1982
Assessment of the Fuzzy Model Parameters……Page 1983
FUZZY RULES FOR HYDROLOGICAL MODELING……Page 1984
FUZZY CALIBRATION MEASURES……Page 1985
REFERENCES……Page 1986
THE NATURE OF RAINFALL-RUNOFF MODELS……Page 1987
MODEL CALIBRATION……Page 1988
ON THE SOURCES AND THE NATURE OF THE TOTAL ERROR IN RAINFALL-RUNOFF MODELING……Page 1992
CONSIDERING PARAMETER UNCERTAINTY……Page 1993
CONSIDERING STRUCTURAL UNCERTAINTY……Page 1996
CONSIDERING DATA UNCERTAINTY……Page 1997
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS……Page 1998
FURTHER READING……Page 1999
REFERENCES……Page 2000
What is anthropogenic climate change?……Page 2004
What effects have been observed in recent decades?……Page 2005
What development of climatic variables has been projected for the future?……Page 2006
Definitions: Land Use, Land Cover, Land Management, River Training……Page 2009
Land-use change relevance at what scale and for what climatic conditions?……Page 2010
Modeling Climate Change Impacts……Page 2011
Modeling land-use change impacts……Page 2013
UNCERTAINTY ISSUES……Page 2014
Modeling Climate Change Effects on the Runoff Conditions in Different European Catchments……Page 2017
A Comprehensive Modeling Study of Land-use Change Effects on the Runoff Conditions in the Rhine Basin……Page 2022
CONCLUSIONS……Page 2028
REFERENCES……Page 2029
INTRODUCTION……Page 2032
HYDROLOGICAL SIMILARITY IN RAINFALL-RUNOFF MODELING……Page 2033
Event Models……Page 2035
Explicit Soil Moisture Accounting Models……Page 2036
Limitations and Challenges……Page 2037
Methods……Page 2039
Local Scale Measurements and Relation to Landscape Attributes……Page 2040
Soft Data and Qualitative Field Observations……Page 2041
ALTERNATIVES TO RUNOFF DATA FOR MODEL CALIBRATION……Page 2043
Acknowledgment……Page 2046
REFERENCES……Page 2047
INTRODUCTION……Page 2051
BOTTOM-UP OR UPWARD APPROACH TO MODEL DEVELOPMENT……Page 2052
TOP-DOWN OR DOWNWARD APPROACH TO MODEL BUILDING……Page 2053
Model Development……Page 2054
EXAMPLES OF APPLICATION OF THE DOWNWARD APPROACH IN HYDROLOGY……Page 2055
The Aggregate Dead Zone Model: a Data-Based Mechanistic Model of Pollutant Transport in a River……Page 2056
A Data-Based Mechanistic Model of the Rainfall-Flow Process……Page 2058
Water Balance Estimation Through Streamflow Recession Analysis and Baseflow Separation……Page 2060
Hierarchical Approach to Development of Conceptual Water Balance Models……Page 2061
Other Examples of the Downward Approach……Page 2063
REFERENCES……Page 2066
PART 12 Open-channel Flow……Page 2071
Geometry of Channels……Page 2072
Flow Regimes……Page 2073
DISTRIBUTION OF PRESSURE……Page 2074
REFERENCES……Page 2075
EQUATION OF ENERGY……Page 2076
Specific-energy Curve……Page 2078
Critical Depth……Page 2079
REFERENCES……Page 2080
Equation of Motion……Page 2081
Coefficient of Weisbach–Darcy……Page 2082
Coefficient of Manning……Page 2083
Coefficient of Friction, Mobile Bed……Page 2084
Composite Section……Page 2085
Critical Velocity……Page 2086
FLOW IN CURVES……Page 2087
Head Loss……Page 2088
REFERENCES……Page 2089
Equations of Saint-Venant……Page 2091
Hydrodynamic Equations……Page 2093
Hydrodynamic Equations……Page 2094
FLOOD WAVE……Page 2095
REFERENCES……Page 2096
GOVERNING EQUATIONS……Page 2098
Method of Characteristics……Page 2099
Description of the MOBED Model……Page 2102
Testing of MOBED Model……Page 2104
Results……Page 2107
Integral (Conservative) Forms of Governing Equations……Page 2108
Properties of Integral Governing Equations……Page 2109
Discontinuous Solutions and Riemann Problem……Page 2110
First – order Numerical Schemes for Modeling Flows with Discontinuities……Page 2111
Higher – order Numerical Schemes for Modeling Flows with Discontinuities……Page 2112
Treatment of Source Terms……Page 2113
AN EXAMPLE OF A CONSERVATIVE UPWIND MODEL AND ITS TESTING……Page 2114
CONCLUDING REMARKS FOR DISCONTINUOUS SOLUTIONS……Page 2115
REFERENCES……Page 2116
Modes of Transport (see Figure 1)……Page 2118
Equations of Saint-Venant–Exner……Page 2119
Propagation of Perturbations……Page 2120
Analytical Solutions……Page 2121
Theoretical Considerations……Page 2122
Bed-load Relations……Page 2123
Granulometry, Armoring……Page 2124
Theoretical Considerations……Page 2125
Suspended-load Relation……Page 2127
Total-load Relations……Page 2128
Application of Relations……Page 2129
REFERENCES……Page 2130
ONE-DIMENSIONAL (1D) MODELS……Page 2132
QUASI-2D MODELS……Page 2134
TWO-DIMENSIONAL (2D) MODELS……Page 2136
THREE-DIMENSIONAL (3D) MODELS……Page 2137
REFERENCES……Page 2140
INTRODUCTION……Page 2142
DEBRIS-FLOW TRIGGERING……Page 2143
Theory of Dispersive Stresses……Page 2144
Kinetic Theories……Page 2145
Experimental Analysis……Page 2147
Global Relations for Debris Flows in Equilibrium……Page 2148
MATHEMATICAL MODELING……Page 2149
MITIGATION AND RISK REDUCTION MEASURES……Page 2151
Debris-flow Breakers……Page 2152
REFERENCES……Page 2153
VELOCITY DISTRIBUTION……Page 2155
HYDRAULIC RESISTANCE……Page 2156
THE INITIATION OF SEDIMENT MOVEMENT……Page 2157
Hiding and Armoring……Page 2159
SEDIMENT TRANSPORT……Page 2160
MOUNTAIN CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY……Page 2161
TORRENT CONTROL CRITERIA……Page 2162
REFERENCES……Page 2165
UPPER, MIDDLE, AND LOWER REACH……Page 2167
FUNCTIONS AND HUMAN INTERVENTIONS……Page 2168
PROCESSES AT THE BASIN SCALE……Page 2169
ROUGHNESS AND FLOW RESISTANCE……Page 2170
SEDIMENT TRANSPORT……Page 2171
GRADED SEDIMENT……Page 2172
LARGE-SCALE MORPHOLOGICAL EQUILIBRIUM STATE……Page 2173
MORPHODYNAMICS……Page 2174
MORPHOLOGY AND TIME-VARYING INPUTS……Page 2175
THREE-DIMENSIONAL MORPHODYNAMICS……Page 2176
REFERENCES……Page 2178
PART 13 Groundwater……Page 2180
GROUNDWATER IN THE HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE OF THE EARTH……Page 2181
GROUNDWATER-FLOW SYSTEMS……Page 2183
Time of Travel in a Groundwater Flow System……Page 2184
Effects of Human Activities on Groundwater Budgets……Page 2186
Effects of Climate on Groundwater Budgets……Page 2187
Streams……Page 2189
Lakes and Wetlands……Page 2190
CONCLUDING REMARKS……Page 2191
REFERENCES……Page 2192
INTRODUCTION……Page 2195
Variation……Page 2196
Water-budget Methods……Page 2198
Modeling Methods……Page 2199
Methods Based on Groundwater Data……Page 2201
Darcian Methods……Page 2203
Chemical Tracer Methods……Page 2204
Heat-based Methods……Page 2207
Other Geophysical Methods……Page 2208
REFERENCES……Page 2209
INTRODUCTION……Page 2213
The Typical Steps of Characterization……Page 2214
The Scale Issue……Page 2215
Interpolation……Page 2217
Discrete Smooth Interpolation……Page 2218
STOCHASTIC CHARACTERIZATION……Page 2219
Statistics……Page 2220
Geostatistics……Page 2221
Multiple-point Geostatistics……Page 2222
GENETIC MODELS……Page 2224
Deterministic versus Stochastic Inversion……Page 2225
Examples of Stochastic Inversion Methods……Page 2226
REFERENCES……Page 2228
INTRODUCTION……Page 2231
Seismic-Hydrogeological Relationships……Page 2232
Seismic Methods……Page 2233
Hydrogeological Applications……Page 2234
Electrical-Hydrogeological Relationships……Page 2235
Geoelectrical Methods……Page 2236
Hydrogeological Applications……Page 2237
Low-Frequency Electromagnetic Methods……Page 2238
Ground-Penetrating Radar……Page 2241
COMBINED HYDROGEOPHYSICAL APPROACHES……Page 2244
OUTLOOK……Page 2245
REFERENCES……Page 2246
The Experimentally Derived Law……Page 2250
Microscopic Consideration……Page 2251
Macroscopic Consideration……Page 2252
MASS BALANCE EQUATION FOR SATURATED FLOW……Page 2254
Boundary Conditions……Page 2256
Flow in Confined Aquifers……Page 2258
Flow in Unconfined Aquifers……Page 2260
Simple Example for Flow Problem Formulation……Page 2261
REFERENCES……Page 2262
PHENOMENA OF UNSATURATED ZONE FLOW……Page 2263
Unsaturated Hydrostatics……Page 2264
Basic Unsaturated Flow……Page 2267
Unsteady Diffuse Flow……Page 2268
Preferential Flow……Page 2269
Multiphase Flow……Page 2271
Moisture State……Page 2273
Water Retention……Page 2274
Dynamic Characteristics……Page 2275
Distributions of Water and Energy……Page 2278
Fluxes at the Land Surface Input……Page 2279
Fluxes Within the Unsaturated Zone……Page 2281
CONCLUSION……Page 2283
REFERENCES……Page 2284
INTRODUCTION……Page 2287
WELL TESTING……Page 2288
The Dupuit–Thiem Solution in Steady State……Page 2289
Compression Zone and Radius of Investigation……Page 2290
Relation Between Jacob and Thiem Solutions……Page 2292
Interpretation of a Pumping Test with the Theis Solution……Page 2293
Heterogeneous Aquifers……Page 2294
Bounded Aquifers……Page 2295
Variable Pumping Rate……Page 2296
Unconfined Aquifer……Page 2297
Skin Effect……Page 2298
Quadratic Head Losses……Page 2299
General Radial-Flow Model……Page 2300
Constant Head Test……Page 2301
REFERENCES……Page 2302
INTRODUCTION……Page 2305
Diffusive Flux……Page 2306
Dispersive Flux……Page 2307
Macrodispersion……Page 2310
Sources Due to Injection and Pumping……Page 2312
Sources Due to Adsorption……Page 2313
Sources Due to Volatilization……Page 2314
Sources Due to Chemical Reactions……Page 2315
Boundary with a Body of Fluid……Page 2316
COMPLETE MATHEMATICAL MODEL……Page 2317
REFERENCES……Page 2318
INTRODUCTION: SOURCES OF GROUNDWATER CONTAMINATION……Page 2319
Partitioning Processes……Page 2321
Transformations……Page 2324
GROUNDWATER CONTAMINATION: A RISK-BASED PERSPECTIVE……Page 2325
ACTIVE METHODS……Page 2327
Passive Methods……Page 2328
REFERENCES……Page 2329
INTRODUCTION……Page 2331
GEOSTATISTICS……Page 2332
Basic Statistical Treatment……Page 2333
Geostatistical Description of Spatially Variable Parameters……Page 2334
Spectral Methods……Page 2340
Perturbation Methods……Page 2341
Macrodispersion Coefficient……Page 2342
Statistical Spatial Moments……Page 2344
Statistical Temporal Moments……Page 2346
INVERSE PROBLEMS AS STATISTICS……Page 2349
Deterministic versus Stochastic Inversion……Page 2350
Illustrations and Examples……Page 2351
Motivation……Page 2354
Bayesian Data Assimilation……Page 2355
cross-well electromagnetic resistivity survey ρ(x)…….Page 2356
Introduction……Page 2357
Conceptual Model Geometry……Page 2358
Stochastic Discrete Fracture Network Models……Page 2360
REFERENCES……Page 2363
INTRODUCTION……Page 2365
Transport (Mass and Heat)……Page 2367
Sorption……Page 2368
Finite Volumes……Page 2369
Method of Characteristics / Lagrangian Methods……Page 2370
Reactive Transport……Page 2371
Accuracy and Stability Criteria……Page 2372
PREPROCESSING……Page 2373
SOFTWARE OVERVIEW……Page 2374
Acknowledgments……Page 2375
SOFTWARE LINKS……Page 2376
REFERENCES……Page 2377
The Inverse Problem……Page 2379
Parameterization……Page 2380
Criteria for Optimal Parameter Estimation……Page 2381
Sensitivity Coefficients……Page 2383
The Reliability of Parameter Estimation……Page 2384
Parameter Structure Complexity……Page 2385
Identification of the Optimal Parameterization……Page 2386
The Geostatistical Method for Parameter Estimation……Page 2387
Identification of Representative Parameters……Page 2388
Robust Experimental Design……Page 2389
Applications……Page 2390
REFERENCES……Page 2392
INTRODUCTION……Page 2395
THE 3-D SHARP INTERFACE MODEL……Page 2397
THE GHYBEN–HERZBERG APPROXIMATION……Page 2398
ESSENTIALLY HORIZONTAL FLOW MODEL……Page 2399
THE TRANSITION ZONE BETWEEN FRESH AND SEAWATER……Page 2402
MANAGEMENT OF A COASTAL AQUIFER……Page 2405
REFERENCES……Page 2406
INTRODUCTION……Page 2407
Basic Mechanisms……Page 2409
MEASURING AND MONITORING LAND SUBSIDENCE……Page 2411
Differential GPS……Page 2412
InSAR……Page 2413
Borehole Extensometry……Page 2414
Radioactive Markers……Page 2415
MODELING AND PREDICTING LAND SUBSIDENCE……Page 2416
MITIGATION OF LAND SUBSIDENCE BY FLUID INJECTION……Page 2417
REFERENCES……Page 2420
PART 14 Snow and Glacier Hydrology……Page 2424
INTRODUCTION……Page 2425
MEASUREMENT OF SNOWFALL AND SNOW COVER……Page 2426
Snow Depth……Page 2427
Snow Water Equivalent (SWE)……Page 2429
DISTRIBUTION OF SNOW COVER……Page 2430
AVALANCHES……Page 2431
SUMMARY……Page 2432
REFERENCES……Page 2433
INTRODUCTION……Page 2437
OVERVIEW OF PROCESSES IN AND OVER SNOW……Page 2438
SNOW DESCRIPTION……Page 2439
Discussion……Page 2440
SNOW METAMORPHISM……Page 2442
SURFACE ENERGY AND MASS EXCHANGE……Page 2443
Sensible Heat Exchange……Page 2444
Rain Energy……Page 2445
SNOW TRANSPORT AND THREE-DIMENSIONAL EFFECTS……Page 2446
Snow Saltation……Page 2447
Snow Suspension……Page 2448
FURTHER READING……Page 2450
REFERENCES……Page 2451
INTRODUCTION……Page 2453
Definitions……Page 2454
Relationships Between Water Saturation and Permeability……Page 2455
WATER FLUX INTO DRY SNOW/FIRN……Page 2456
Wetting Fronts……Page 2457
Refreezing Within Snow/Firn……Page 2459
Darcian Flow……Page 2460
Modeling Vertical, Unsaturated Water Flux……Page 2461
Heterogeneous Flow in Snow/Firn……Page 2462
CONCLUSION……Page 2463
REFERENCES……Page 2464
INTRODUCTION……Page 2467
In Situ Estimates of Catchment Snowcover……Page 2469
Remote Sensing of Snowcovered Catchments……Page 2471
Snow Classification……Page 2472
The Conservation of Energy and Mass……Page 2473
Snowcover Depletion Curves (SDCs)……Page 2476
ESTIMATING CATCHMENT SNOWMELT……Page 2479
INDEX METHODS FOR ESTIMATING BASIN RUNOFF……Page 2480
CONCLUSIONS……Page 2481
REFERENCES……Page 2482
The Chemistry of Snowfall……Page 2486
Snow Redistribution Processes……Page 2487
Processes at the Atmosphere-snow Surface Interface……Page 2488
Solute Leaching……Page 2490
Snowmelt-particulate Interactions……Page 2492
Snow Nutrient Fluxes and Basin Budgets……Page 2493
REFERENCES……Page 2495
INTRODUCTION……Page 2500
GLACIER VOLUMES……Page 2501
GLACIER FLOW, MASS BALANCE, AND RESPONSE TIMES……Page 2502
AGE OF GLACIERS AND ICE SHEETS……Page 2503
Milankovitch Theory and the Forcing of Glaciations……Page 2504
Amplifying Factors and Feedback Mechanisms……Page 2505
EVIDENCE FOR RAPID CLIMATE CHANGES……Page 2507
Meltwater Pulse 1A and the Bølling-Allerød Warm Period (14 600 years ago)……Page 2508
Proglacial Lake Outbursts and the 8200-year Event……Page 2509
Antarctica……Page 2510
Glaciers……Page 2511
Ice Sheets……Page 2512
FURTHER READING……Page 2513
REFERENCES……Page 2514
INTRODUCTION……Page 2516
Glacier Types and Glacier Zones……Page 2517
Surface Energy Balance……Page 2519
Basal Energy Balance……Page 2520
Methods of Measurement……Page 2521
Results……Page 2525
REFERENCES……Page 2531
INTRODUCTION……Page 2535
Water Flow and Storage in Snow and Firn Reservoirs……Page 2536
Supraglacial Channel Systems and Lakes……Page 2537
Controls on the Character of Supraglacial Drainage Systems……Page 2538
Water Supply to, and Flow through, the Englacial Drainage System……Page 2539
Methods of Investigating Englacial Drainage……Page 2541
REFERENCES……Page 2543
Water Sources……Page 2547
The Location and Direction of Subglacial Drainage……Page 2548
Radio-echo Sounding……Page 2549
Borehole Manipulation and Monitoring……Page 2550
Properties of Glacial Runoff……Page 2551
Distributed/Slow Subglacial Drainage Systems……Page 2552
Channelized/Fast Subglacial Drainage Systems……Page 2553
Spring Transitions……Page 2554
Hydrological Changes During Glacier Surges……Page 2555
Tidal Forcing of Subglacial Drainage……Page 2556
REFERENCES……Page 2557
INTERANNUAL VARIATIONS IN GLACIER WATER (MASS) BALANCE……Page 2561
INTERANNUAL VARIATIONS IN GLACIER RUNOFF……Page 2562
High Latitudes……Page 2566
Low Latitudes……Page 2567
Midlatitude Glaciers……Page 2569
High-latitude Glaciers……Page 2572
SEASONAL WATER STORAGE……Page 2573
Firn Storage……Page 2574
Subglacial Storage……Page 2575
Ice-dammed Subglacial Lakes……Page 2576
Moraine-dammed Lakes……Page 2579
Drainage from the Englacial/Subglacial Drainage System……Page 2580
Summary……Page 2581
Effects of Future Climate Change……Page 2582
REFERENCES……Page 2583
GLACIER HYDROLOGY, HYDROGRAPHS, FLUXES, AND SPECIFIC RUNOFF……Page 2592
SUSPENDED SEDIMENT CONCENTRATIONS, BED LOAD, SEDIMENT FLUXES, AND YIELDS……Page 2594
CHEMICAL CONCENTRATIONS, SUBGLACIAL CHEMICAL WEATHERING AND CHEMICAL WEATHERING FLUXES……Page 2598
SIGNIFICANCE OF GLACIAL FLUXES OF SEDIMENT AND SOLUTE IN GLOBAL WATER, SEDIMENT, AND GEOCHEMICAL CYCLES……Page 2601
CONCLUSIONS……Page 2602
REFERENCES……Page 2603
INTRODUCTION……Page 2605
STOCHASTIC MODELS……Page 2606
Linear Reservoir Models……Page 2607
Recession Analysis……Page 2609
PHYSICALLY BASED MODELS……Page 2610
CONCLUDING REMARKS……Page 2611
REFERENCES……Page 2612
INTRODUCTION……Page 2614
Ice Production……Page 2615
Winter Ice Growth……Page 2617
Ice Breakup……Page 2618
Flow Storage and Low Flows……Page 2619
Breakup Ice Jams, Flooding and Surges……Page 2621
Sediment Transport and River Morphology……Page 2622
River Ecology……Page 2625
SUMMARY……Page 2628
REFERENCES……Page 2629
PERMAFROST EXTENT AND CHARACTERISTICS……Page 2635
ACTIVE LAYER HYDROLOGY……Page 2639
SURFACE WATER HYDROLOGY IN PERMAFROST REGIONS……Page 2640
GROUND WATER HYDROLOGY IN CONTINUOUS AND DISCONTINUOUS PERMAFROST……Page 2641
PERMAFROST CONTROL ON WATERSHED MORPHOLOGY……Page 2644
REFERENCES……Page 2645
PART 15 Global Hydrology……Page 2652
INTRODUCTION……Page 2653
Reservoirs……Page 2654
Fluxes……Page 2657
DATA AND THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE……Page 2658
Climate and Hydrology Models……Page 2659
Climate Change……Page 2660
Land-use and Hydrology Changes……Page 2663
TOWARD IMPROVED UNDERSTANDING OF THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE……Page 2664
REFERENCES……Page 2666
Global Budget……Page 2668
Atmosphere……Page 2669
Land……Page 2670
Ocean……Page 2671
REFERENCES……Page 2672
BACKGROUND……Page 2673
Evapotranspiration……Page 2674
Groundwater……Page 2676
Snow……Page 2678
Precipitation……Page 2679
Streamflow……Page 2680
Wetlands……Page 2681
Soil Moisture……Page 2682
Atmospheric Moisture Storage and Fluxes……Page 2683
REFERENCES……Page 2684
INTRODUCTION: WHY A REMOTE SENSING APPROACH?……Page 2686
MOTIVATING/DRIVING QUESTIONS……Page 2687
Precipitation……Page 2689
Oceanic Turbulent Heat Fluxes……Page 2692
Land-surface Hydrology……Page 2693
Clouds and Water Vapor……Page 2696
Cryospheric Issues……Page 2698
SYNTHESIS AND ASSESSMENT……Page 2699
A LOOK TO THE FUTURE……Page 2700
REFERENCES……Page 2701
INTRODUCTION……Page 2705
MESOSCALE FIELD EXPERIMENTS……Page 2706
COORDINATED ENHANCED OBSERVING PERIOD……Page 2709
REFERENCES……Page 2710
INTRODUCTION: ATMOSPHERIC GENERAL CIRCULATION MODELS……Page 2712
MODELED WATER CYCLE COMPONENTS……Page 2713
MODEL PARAMETERIZATIONS AND LIMITATIONS……Page 2716
DATA ASSIMILATION……Page 2718
VARIABILITY ANALYSES……Page 2719
REFERENCES……Page 2723
INTRODUCTION……Page 2727
Basic Equations……Page 2728
Fluxes……Page 2729
Perturbation Equation……Page 2730
SOLUTIONS……Page 2731
CONTROL OF SEASONAL SCALE BY WATER EXCHANGE……Page 2732
Timescales of Water Cycle……Page 2734
Persistence of Water Cycle……Page 2735
Physical Mechanisms……Page 2736
SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION……Page 2737
REFERENCES……Page 2738
INTRODUCTION……Page 2741
PARAMETERIZATION OF LAND-SURFACE PROCESSES……Page 2742
OSU Scheme……Page 2744
CASE STUDIES OF SEVERE PRECIPITATION EVENTS……Page 2747
The Storm of October 1994 over Greece……Page 2748
Thunderstorm Activity Associated with Convergence Zones……Page 2749
The ‘‘Hurricane-like’’ Mediterranean Cyclone of January 1995……Page 2753
The Floods over Central and Southern Greece in January 1997……Page 2756
A Severe Frontal Cyclone over Greece in March 1998……Page 2757
CONCLUDING REMARKS……Page 2758
REFERENCES……Page 2759
Human Perturbations to the Earth System……Page 2762
Using Models for Long-term Projections……Page 2763
Ecosystem Models……Page 2765
Radiatively-forced Climate Change……Page 2766
Effects of Radiatively forced Climate Change on Global Ecosystems……Page 2768
Effects of Radiatively Forced Climate Change on Global Hydrology……Page 2769
Effects of Physiological Forcing on Ecosystems……Page 2770
Effects of Physiological Forcing on Climate……Page 2771
LAND USE FORCING OF THE CLIMATE SYSTEM……Page 2772
INTERACTIONS BETWEEN FORCINGS……Page 2773
ECOSYSTEM FEEDBACK ON CLIMATE CHANGE……Page 2774
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS……Page 2777
REFERENCES……Page 2778
INTRODUCTION……Page 2780
DATA SOURCES……Page 2782
THE ATMOSPHERIC BRANCH OF THE HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE……Page 2784
TURBULENT FLUXES OVER THE OCEAN……Page 2789
OPTIONS FOR RESEARCH……Page 2791
FURTHER READING……Page 2795
REFERENCES……Page 2796
INTRODUCTION……Page 2797
Ocean to Atmosphere/Atmosphere to Ocean……Page 2798
Teleconnections in the Atmosphere……Page 2801
‘‘Greenhouse Gas Warming’’ and Projection on Natural Modes……Page 2804
ISOLATED OR INTERCONNECTED?……Page 2805
REFERENCES……Page 2806
BIOGEOCHEMICAL DYNAMICS IN RIVER BASINS……Page 2810
RIVER BIOGEOCHEMISTRY: THE BASIC PARAMETERS AND PROCESSES ACROSS SCALES……Page 2811
Dissolved Inorganic Species……Page 2812
Particulate Organic Matter……Page 2813
SCALE-DEPENDENT MODELING AND PROCESS DYNAMICS……Page 2814
Within-river Transport and Reaction Processes……Page 2817
Anthropogenic Transient……Page 2818
Dissolved N and P……Page 2819
REFERENCES……Page 2820
PART 16 Land Use and Water Management……Page 2823
The Evolving Approach to Land and Water Management……Page 2824
History and the Dublin Principles……Page 2825
The Brundtland Report……Page 2826
The Natural Step……Page 2827
Sustainable Livelihoods and the Pentagon……Page 2828
The Value of Water……Page 2829
WATER AS AN ECONOMIC COMMODITY……Page 2830
THE VALUE OF LAND USE……Page 2831
Forests and Hydrological Services……Page 2833
Agricultural Irrigation and Water Resources……Page 2834
Participatory Approaches……Page 2835
REFERENCES……Page 2836
INTRODUCTION……Page 2839
A Brief History of Forest Hydrology……Page 2840
THE IMPACT OF FORESTS ON THE HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE……Page 2841
Partitioning of Precipitation in Forests……Page 2842
The Soil–Vegetation–Atmosphere Continuum……Page 2843
Total Evaporation……Page 2844
Runoff and Catchment Yield……Page 2846
Low Flows……Page 2848
Flood Peaks (Volume and Timing)……Page 2849
REFERENCES……Page 2850
INTRODUCTION……Page 2854
THE SOCIAL SCIENCE DEBATE ABOUT ENVIRONMENTAL ‘‘MYTHS’’ AND PERCEPTIONS……Page 2855
HIMALAYAN ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION THEORY……Page 2856
DRYLANDS AND WATER SCARCITY: DESICCATION IN THE SAHEL……Page 2857
DEFORESTATION AND REFORESTATION IN WATERSHED ZONES……Page 2858
Do Forests Increase Rainfall?……Page 2859
Do Forests Increase Runoff?……Page 2860
Do Forests Reduce Erosion?……Page 2861
Linking Public Perceptions and Science……Page 2862
CONCLUSION……Page 2863
REFERENCES……Page 2865
INTRODUCTION……Page 2868
Effect of Increased Urbanization on Water Quality……Page 2869
Agricultural Intensification and Water Quality……Page 2870
Land Use–Water Quality Studies in Developing Countries……Page 2871
REFERENCES……Page 2872
Land Cover Effects on Supply……Page 2874
Climate Change Effects on Supply……Page 2876
EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON FUTURE LAND COVER……Page 2877
CONCLUSION……Page 2878
REFERENCES……Page 2879
BACKGROUND……Page 2881
New Terminology – ‘‘Hydromorphology’’……Page 2882
Ecology, Hydrology, and Morphology: Interrelationships……Page 2883
Selecting Reference Conditions for Hydromorphological Quality……Page 2884
Structure and Process, Catchment and Site – Further Debates……Page 2885
Assessment and Monitoring ‘‘Towards Good Ecological Quality’’……Page 2886
THE GEOMORPHOLOGICAL BASIS FOR ‘‘REFERENCE’’ AND ‘‘RESTORATION’’……Page 2887
THE POLICY TEMPLATE: IMPLEMENTING AND COMPLYING WITH THE WFD……Page 2888
Biological Integrity……Page 2889
CONCLUSIONS AND REFLECTION……Page 2890
REFERENCES……Page 2891
In-stream and Environmental Flows Defined……Page 2894
Three Basic Assumptions of Environmental Flows Assessment……Page 2895
Hydrological Methods……Page 2896
Hydraulic Rating Methods……Page 2897
Habitat Rating Methods……Page 2898
Holistic Methodologies……Page 2899
SOFTWARE TO ASSIST ENVIRONMENTAL FLOW ASSESSMENTS……Page 2901
Managed Floods for Riparian, Floodplain, and Wetland Inundation……Page 2902
Assessing Water Requirements of Groundwater-dependent Ecosystems……Page 2903
Assessing Flow Needs for Recreation……Page 2904
FUTURE DIRECTIONS……Page 2905
REFERENCES……Page 2906
INTRODUCTION……Page 2913
RIVER BASINS AND THEIR STAKEHOLDERS: A CONTEXT FOR QUALITY OF LIFE CAPITAL……Page 2914
‘‘CAPITAL’’ ASSESSMENTS OF ECOSYSTEM ATTRIBUTES……Page 2916
INTRODUCTION TO UK CASE STUDIES: UPPER WHARFEDALE AND UPPER COQUETDALE……Page 2917
LESSONS FROM EVALUATION: A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF ‘‘CAPITAL’’ AS A PARTICIPATORY DEVICE……Page 2921
CONCLUSIONS……Page 2923
REFERENCES……Page 2924
INTRODUCTION……Page 2926
DEFINING WATERSHED SERVICES……Page 2927
TYPES OF MARKET-BASED INSTRUMENTS USED TO CREATE INCENTIVES FOR PROTECTING WATERSHED SERVICES……Page 2929
Demonstrating Measurable Benefits……Page 2933
Identifying and Evaluating Trade-offs……Page 2934
Development of Appropriate Institutional Arrangements……Page 2935
Rights to Watershed Services and Responsibilities for Their Provision……Page 2936
Socioeconomic and Political Context……Page 2937
CONCLUSION……Page 2938
REFERENCES……Page 2939
FROM WATER TO LAND AND WATER MANAGEMENT……Page 2942
Institutional Analysis……Page 2943
Interinstitutional Linkages……Page 2944
National Level……Page 2945
River-basin Level……Page 2947
Upstream-downstream Linkages……Page 2948
REFERENCES……Page 2949
PART 17 Climate Change……Page 2951
INTRODUCTION……Page 2952
PCM……Page 2954
PCM HYDROLOGIC CYCLE……Page 2955
CYCLING RATE……Page 2960
SUMMARY……Page 2963
REFERENCES……Page 2965
THE PLANET’S ENERGY BALANCE……Page 2966
WATER VAPOR, CLOUDS, AND THE PLANET’S ENERGY BALANCE……Page 2967
WATER VAPOR FEEDBACK……Page 2968
AEROSOL, CLOUD, AND PRECIPITATION……Page 2969
REFERENCES……Page 2970
INTRODUCTION……Page 2971
CHANGES IN PRECIPITATION……Page 2972
CHANGES IN STREAMFLOW……Page 2974
REFERENCES……Page 2977
INTRODUCTION……Page 2980
OBSERVING THE CRYOSPHERE……Page 2981
VULNERABILITY OF CRYOSPHERE TO CLIMATE CHANGE……Page 2983
REFERENCES……Page 2985
INTRODUCTION……Page 2986
Frozen Precipitation As a Climate Archive: Continental Ice Sheets……Page 2987
Groundwater As a Climate Archive……Page 2988
Water Supersaturated with Respect to Calcite: Caves As Climate Archives……Page 2990
Precipitation History……Page 2994
Surface Water Discharge Reconstructions……Page 2997
Droughts……Page 3000
REFERENCES……Page 3002
Definitions of Change……Page 3007
Instrumental……Page 3008
Paleoclimatic Data……Page 3010
SOURCES OF DATA……Page 3011
Example from Tree Rings: Southern Manitoba, Canada……Page 3012
RUNOFF……Page 3013
Example from Tree Rings: Colorado River Basin, US……Page 3014
Example from Tree Rings: White River Basin, Arkansas, Southeastern United States……Page 3015
Example from Paleolimnology: Northern Great Plains, US……Page 3017
SNOWPACK……Page 3018
FURTHER READING……Page 3019
REFERENCES……Page 3020
INTRODUCTION……Page 3022
EVOLUTION OF LAND SURFACE MODELING……Page 3024
ROLE OF LAND–ATMOSPHERE MODEL EXPERIMENTS IN REDUCING ERRORS AND UNCERTAINTIES……Page 3026
APPLICATIONS OF UNCOUPLED LAND SURFACE MODELS……Page 3027
MODEL PERFORMANCE EVALUATION……Page 3029
INTO THE FUTURE……Page 3030
REFERENCES……Page 3031
INTRODUCTION……Page 3035
Historical Climate Variability……Page 3036
Climate Forecasts……Page 3039
Climate Change……Page 3041
CONSIDERING WATER MANAGEMENT……Page 3042
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS……Page 3044
REFERENCES……Page 3045
INTRODUCTION……Page 3050
International and Intersectoral Dialogue……Page 3052
International Scientific Associations……Page 3053
Partnerships for Research……Page 3054
Experiments and Field Campaigns……Page 3055
Monitoring and Observational Programs……Page 3056
PROGRAMS FOCUSED ON PROCESS AND MODELING STUDIES AND BASIC SCIENCE……Page 3058
Issues Involved in Hydrological Research……Page 3059
Hydrologic Process Studies……Page 3061
Applications……Page 3062
Assessments……Page 3064
Applied Research: Regional and National Research Institutes and Centers……Page 3065
Outreach……Page 3066
Challenges in the Coordination of International Science……Page 3068
Appendix A ACRONYMS AND WEBSITES……Page 3070
REFERENCES……Page 3074
Index……Page 3076
Reviews
There are no reviews yet.