H.L.M. Lelieveld, M.A. Mostert, J. Holah9780849334399, 0-8493-3439-X
Part 1 reviews research on the range of contamination risks faced by food processors. Building on this foundation, Part 2 discusses current trends in the design both of buildings and types of food processing equipment, from heating and packaging equipment to valves, pipes and sensors. Key issues in effective hygiene management are then covered in Part 3, from risk analysis, good manufacturing practice, and standard operating procedures (SOPs) to improving cleaning and decontamination techniques. The final part of the book reviews developments in ways of monitoring the effectiveness of hygiene operations, from testing surface cleanability to sampling techniques and hygiene auditing.
Like Hygiene in the Food Industry , this volume will be a standard reference for the food industry in ensuring the highest standards of hygiene in food production.
Table of contents :
Handbook of hygiene control in the food industry……Page 1
Contents……Page 3
Contributor contact details……Page 14
Preface……Page 20
Hygeia, the goddess of health……Page 22
Table of Contents……Page 0
Other hygiene measures……Page 23
The ‘Natural Hygiene’ concept……Page 24
Hygienic developments in Europe……Page 25
Foodborne diseases……Page 27
Hygiene……Page 30
1.2 Definitions of hygiene……Page 32
1.2.1 Personal hygiene……Page 33
1.3 Sources of food contamination……Page 34
1.3.1 Microbial contaminants……Page 35
1.4 Hygiene control measures in food processing……Page 38
1.4.1 General hygiene practices……Page 39
1.4.2 HACCP……Page 40
1.5.1 Improving information on foodborne diseases……Page 42
1.5.2 Assessment of process performance……Page 43
1.5.4 Changing pattern of microbial hazards……Page 44
1.6 References……Page 45
2.1.1 Microorganisms responsible for foodborne diseases……Page 51
2.1.2 Related products……Page 55
2.2 The control of food safety……Page 57
2.3 Using food safety objectives to manage microbial risks……Page 58
2.3.1 Distribution over the chain……Page 59
2.3.2 Quantitative methods……Page 60
2.3.3 Quantification of recontamination……Page 63
2.5 References……Page 64
3.1.1 Factors affecting biofilm formation……Page 66
3.1.2 Biofilm formati on on food processing surfaces……Page 67
3.1.3 Sampling and detection of biofilm formation in food processing sites……Page 68
3.2.1 Salmonella biofilms……Page 70
3.2.2 Escherichia coli biofilms……Page 71
3.2.3 Campylobacter biofilms……Page 72
3.2.5 Staphylococcus aureus biofilms……Page 73
3.2.6 Bacillus cereus biofilms……Page 74
3.2.7 Clostridium perfringens biofilms……Page 75
3.2.8 Mycobacterium biofilms……Page 76
3.3 Biofilms and microbial contamination in food processing……Page 77
3.4.1 Hygienic equipment design……Page 78
3.4.2 Biofilm removal……Page 79
3.5 Future trends……Page 80
3.6 Sources of further information and advice……Page 81
3.7 References……Page 82
4.1 Introduction: disinfection methods……Page 89
4.2 Factors influencing the effectiveness of cleaning and disinfection……Page 90
Mode of action of chlorine dioxide……Page 91
4.2.2 Quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs)……Page 92
4.2.3 Peroxygens……Page 93
4.2.4 Alcohols……Page 94
4.2.6 Bisphenols……Page 95
4.2.7 Biguanides……Page 96
4.3.1 Use of the appropriate product……Page 98
4.3.2 Application of the right cleaning/disinfecting conditions……Page 99
4.3.4 Monitoring……Page 100
4.4 Types of pathogen response……Page 102
4.4.3 Intrinsic resistance……Page 103
4.5 Predicting microbial resistance……Page 104
4.5.3 Processing conditions: pH, temperature, concentration……Page 105
4.6 Future trends……Page 106
4.6.4 Genomics……Page 107
4.8 References……Page 108
5.1 Introduction……Page 113
5.2.1 Droplet generation, size and speed……Page 114
5.3 Aerosol generation……Page 115
5.4 Aerosol dispersal……Page 116
5.5.1 Management of the air……Page 118
5.5.2 Design and operation of open cleaning operations……Page 119
5.7 Sources of further information and advice……Page 120
5.8 References……Page 121
25.2 Legislation……Page 123
25.3 Implementation of the current legislation……Page 124
25.4 Examples……Page 125
25.5 Temperature management……Page 126
25.6 Avoiding cross-contamination……Page 130
25.7 Future trends……Page 131
25.9 References and notes……Page 132
40.1 Introduction……Page 134
40.3 Auditing and the hierarchy of a controlled system……Page 136
40.4 Purposes of an auditing system……Page 138
40.5 Designing a system for improvement audits……Page 139
40.6.2 Putting a team together……Page 140
40.6.3 Preparation for the audit……Page 141
40.6.4 Some key attention points during the audit……Page 142
40.6.5 Follow-up after the audit……Page 145
40.7 References……Page 146
6.1 Introduction……Page 147
6.2 Risk perceptions of consumers are not the same as technical risk assessments……Page 148
6.2.1 Optimistic bias……Page 149
6.3 Risk perception and barriers to effective risk communication……Page 151
6.4.1 Dual-process models……Page 152
6.4.2 Communicating information following the dual-process approach……Page 153
Peripheral processing of information……Page 154
6.4.3 Tailored information campaigns……Page 155
6.6 The need for more intensive cooperation between natural and social scientists……Page 156
6.6.1 Implications beyond consumers……Page 158
6.7 Conclusions……Page 159
6.8 References……Page 160
7.1 Introduction: sanitation and design……Page 166
7.2 Applying the HACCP concept to building design……Page 168
7.2.2 Chemical hazards……Page 169
7.3 Site selection and plant layout……Page 170
7.5 Landscaping and the surrounding area……Page 171
7.6 Roof areas……Page 173
7.7 Loading bays……Page 174
7.8.2 External lighting……Page 175
7.9 Inside the plant……Page 176
7.9.1 Floors……Page 177
7.9.3 Walls……Page 178
7.9.4 Interior walls……Page 180
7.9.5 Ceilings……Page 182
7.9.6 Heating Ventilation Air Conditioning (HVAC) systems……Page 183
7.9.7 Compressed air……Page 185
7.9.9 Personnel facilities……Page 186
7.10 Future trends……Page 188
7.11 Bibliography……Page 190
8.1 Introduction……Page 191
8.2 Barrier 1: Site……Page 193
8.3 Barrier 2: Factory building……Page 194
8.4 Barrier 3: High-care/risk areas……Page 198
8.4.1 Structure……Page 200
8.4.2 Heat-treated product……Page 201
8.4.5 Packaging……Page 203
8.4.7 Personnel……Page 204
8.4.8 Air……Page 205
8.4.9 Utensils……Page 207
8.5 Barrier 4: Finished product enclosure……Page 208
8.6 References……Page 210
9.2.1 The substrate……Page 211
Resin-based flooring materials……Page 212
Aggregates……Page 213
Ceramic tile jointing……Page 214
Other joints……Page 215
Surface texture……Page 216
Surface texture……Page 217
Cleaning and disinfection of floors……Page 220
9.4.1 Slip resistance……Page 221
9.4.2 Hygiene……Page 222
9.5 Construction of floors……Page 223
9.7.1 Slip-resistance and accidents at work……Page 224
9.8 References……Page 225
10.2 Exterior walls……Page 228
10.3 Interior walls……Page 231
10.4 Bibliography……Page 233
11.1 Introduction: the hygienic performance of closed equipment……Page 234
11.2.1 Importance of flow in cleaning of closed equipment……Page 235
11.2.2 Guidelines on flow conditions during CIP cleaning……Page 237
11.2.3 Flow visualisation methods……Page 239
11.3 Computational fluid dynamics models for optimising hygiene……Page 240
11.3.1 Near-wall treatment……Page 242
11.4.1 Virtual cleaning test……Page 243
11.4.2 Example 1: Prediction of differe nt zones of cleanability — short upstand geometry……Page 245
11.4.3 Example 2: Flow in expansions……Page 246
11.4.4 Example 3: Good cleaning of a spherical valve house……Page 248
11.5 Future trends……Page 250
11.6 Sources of further information and advice……Page 251
11.7 References……Page 252
12.1 Introduction……Page 255
12.2 Heat exchanger design……Page 256
Dual plates with air gap……Page 258
Linear scraped surface heat exchanger……Page 259
12.4.1 Modified surfaces to reduce fouling/enhance cleaning……Page 260
12.5 Conclusions……Page 261
12.6 References……Page 262
13.2 Dry particulate materials and hygienic processing……Page 263
13.3 Cleaning regimes……Page 264
13.4 Design principles……Page 265
13.4.2 Product contact surfaces……Page 266
13.4.4 Flexible connections……Page 267
13.5 Types of equipment in dry material handling areas……Page 269
13.7 References……Page 270
14.1 Introduction……Page 271
14.3.3 Step 3: Risk analysis on identified hazards……Page 272
14.3.5 Step 5: Design and fabrication of equipment……Page 277
Packing machine requirements……Page 278
Conveyors with product contact……Page 279
14.4 Other standards and guidelines……Page 280
14.5 Conclusion……Page 281
15.1 Introduction……Page 282
15.2.2 Zone M……Page 283
15.2.4 Wet or dry processing and type of cleaning……Page 284
15.3.1 Hygienic design principles……Page 285
15.3.2 Basic requirements……Page 286
15.4.1 General requirements for wiring installations……Page 287
15.4.2 Supports……Page 288
15.4.4 Conduits……Page 289
15.4.6 Connections to cabinets and field boxes……Page 290
15.4.8 Field boxes……Page 291
15.5.1 General requirements for wiring installations……Page 293
15.5.2 Supports……Page 295
15.5.4 Conduits……Page 296
15.5.6 Cables and flexible instrument air tubes……Page 297
15.5.8 Cabinets……Page 298
15.5.10 Lighting……Page 299
15.6 General requirements for construction materials……Page 300
15.6.1 Stainless steel……Page 301
15.6.3 Elastomers……Page 302
15.6.5 Surface roughness of construction materials……Page 303
15.7 Future trends……Page 304
Ra……Page 305
16.2.1 Valves commonly used in fluid product processing systems……Page 306
16.2.2 Valves used in fluid or dry product processing systems……Page 310
16.3 Hygienic aspects of valve design……Page 311
16.3.3 Access ibility for cleaning and inspection……Page 312
16.3.6 Internal angles and corners……Page 313
16.3.7 Proces s and installation……Page 314
16.4 Current guidelines, standards, and references……Page 315
17.2 Piping design: good practice……Page 316
17.3 Materials of construction……Page 317
17.4 Product recovery……Page 318
17.5 Microbial growth in piping systems……Page 319
17.6 Plant design……Page 320
17.7 References……Page 321
18.2.1 Impeller……Page 322
18.2.4 Filling and drainage of the pump housing……Page 325
18.3.3 Additional requirements for aseptic equipment……Page 327
18.5 Summary……Page 328
18.6 Bibliography……Page 329
19.1 Introduction……Page 330
19.2.1 Volatile detection – electronic nose……Page 332
Metal oxide sensors and metal oxide semiconducting field effect transistors……Page 333
Acoustic wave devices……Page 334
19.2.2 Liquid detection — electronic tongue……Page 335
19.2.3 Biosensors……Page 336
Thermal biosensors……Page 339
Optical biosensors……Page 340
19.3 Common industrial applications and future trends……Page 341
19.3.2 Biosensors……Page 342
19.3.3 Lab on a chip……Page 343
19.4 References……Page 344
20.1 Introduction……Page 351
20.1.1 Historical evolution of risk assessment in food hygiene……Page 352
20.2.1 Risk management: HACCP and its validation……Page 354
Exposure assessment……Page 356
Risk characterisation……Page 357
20.3.1 Listeria monocytogenes in ready-to-eat foods……Page 358
20.3.2 Production line for pasteurised milk……Page 359
20.6 References……Page 364
20.4 Future trends……Page 363
21.1 Introduction……Page 366
21.2 Effective manufacturing operations and food control……Page 369
21.2.1 Effective food control……Page 370
21.3 Personnel and training……Page 371
21.5 Premises, equipment, product and process design……Page 372
21.6 Manufacturing and operating procedures……Page 373
21.7 Ingredients and packaging materials……Page 374
21.8.1 Intermediate products……Page 377
21.9 Storage and movement of product……Page 378
21.10 Special requirements for certain foods……Page 379
21.10.4 Dry foods……Page 380
21.10.8 Foods manufactured for food service operations……Page 381
21.11 Rejection of product and complaints handling……Page 382
21.11.1 Complaints procedure……Page 383
21.12 Product recall and other emergency procedures……Page 384
21.14 Good control laboratory practice (GLP)……Page 386
21.15 Future trends……Page 388
21.16 References……Page 389
22.1 Introduction: defining standard operating propcedures (SOPs)……Page 390
Identification……Page 392
Procedures……Page 393
22.2.2 SOP monitoring and record keeping……Page 395
22.2.3 SOP verification and review……Page 396
22.2 They key components of SOPs and SOP programs……Page 391
FDA Seafood HACCP regulations……Page 397
NCIMS voluntary fluid milk HACCP……Page 398
22.3.2 FSIS meat and poultry HACCP regulations……Page 399
Inadequate employee time……Page 400
Impact of regulatory and third party audit requirements……Page 401
22.5 Sources of further information……Page 402
22.6 References……Page 403
23.1 Introduction……Page 405
23.2 Food allergy and product safety……Page 406
23.3.2 Integrated approach……Page 408
23.3.3 Role of allergen detection in the integrated approach……Page 410
23.4.2 What should assays for allergenic residues detect?……Page 411
23.4.4 Characteristics of the ideal allergen detection assay……Page 413
Assays for measuring single allergenic proteins……Page 414
Matrix interfere nce……Page 415
23.5 Future trends……Page 416
23.6 References……Page 417
24.1 Introduction……Page 420
24.2 Potential microbiological problems with packaging……Page 422
24.2.1 Spore-forming bacteria in end-products……Page 423
24.2.3 Migration of microorganisms into foods from the packaging material……Page 427
24.3 Improving hygienic production and management……Page 428
24.3.1 Hygiene and safety management system……Page 429
24.4 Future trends……Page 433
24.6 References……Page 434
26.1 Introduction……Page 438
Intergranular air (space)……Page 439
Water vapour……Page 440
26.2.4 The role of moisture (humidity)……Page 441
26.3 Moisture migration in the grain bulk……Page 442
26.4.1 The process of heat production by insects and microflora……Page 443
26.5.2 Insect damage……Page 445
Humidity……Page 446
Insect density……Page 447
26.6 Measures of control……Page 448
Design of storage facilities, good housekeeping and sanitation……Page 449
Indirect methods……Page 450
Chemical controls……Page 451
Entoleter……Page 452
Ionizing radiation……Page 453
26.7 Future trends……Page 454
26.9 Bibliography……Page 455
27.1 Introduction: limitations in current CIP systems……Page 456
27.2.1 Cleaning parameters……Page 457
Cleaning time……Page 458
27.2.2 Disinfection parameters……Page 459
27.3.1 Type of CIP system……Page 460
27.3.3 Use of conductivity probes……Page 462
Fresh-water tank……Page 464
27.3.8 Self-priming centrifugal pumps for CIP return, used for tank cleaning……Page 466
CIP circuit groups……Page 467
Typical problems during cleaning system operations……Page 468
Single-use system……Page 469
Recovery system……Page 471
Refilling the recovery tanks with fresh water……Page 472
Preventing water hammer……Page 473
27.5 Future trends……Page 474
27.6 References and further reading……Page 475
28.1 Introduction……Page 476
28.2 Best practices in developing an effective COP process……Page 477
28.3 Defining the process……Page 478
28.4.1 Pre-rinse……Page 479
Soil type……Page 480
Water quality and chemistry……Page 482
Detergent type……Page 484
28.4.4 Sanitization……Page 488
Chemical sanitization methods……Page 489
Acid-anionic sanitizers……Page 490
Emerging chemical and mechanical sanitization methods……Page 491
28.5 Validation……Page 494
28.6 Records and process documentation……Page 495
28.7 Summary……Page 496
28.8 Bibliography……Page 497
29.1.1 Fouling……Page 499
29.1.2 Cleaning……Page 501
29.1.4 Understanding cleaning……Page 502
29.2.1 Fouling from milk……Page 503
29.2.2 Factors affecting fouling……Page 505
29.2.3 Cleaning of dairy deposits……Page 506
Cleaning mechanism……Page 507
Monitoring cleaning……Page 509
29.3.1 Temperature effect……Page 510
29.3.2 Chemical effect……Page 511
29.3.4 Materials properties of deposits……Page 514
29.4.1 Non-uniform flow……Page 517
29.4.3 Effect of surface modification……Page 518
29.5 Conclusions……Page 521
29.7 References……Page 522
30.1 Introduction to cleaning tanks……Page 528
30.2 Factors affecting cleaning efficacy……Page 529
30.3 Hygienic design test methods……Page 532
30.4 Detecting the cleanliness of tanks……Page 533
30.5 Using computational fluid dynamics (CFD) to assess cleanability of closed process lines……Page 534
30.7 References……Page 535
31.1.1 Chemical characteristics and production of ozone……Page 538
31.1.2 Mode of action……Page 539
31.2.2 The food industry……Page 540
31.4.1 Construction materials……Page 541
Ozonated water……Page 542
31.5.3 Dispersal of ozone……Page 543
31.8 Sources of further information and advice……Page 544
31.9 References……Page 545
32.1 Introduction……Page 547
32.2.1 Enzyme-based cleaning of the cold milk area……Page 549
Structure of the deposits……Page 551
Mechanisms of the deposit removal……Page 552
32.3.1 Test soils and experimental procedure……Page 553
32.3.3 Description of the enzyme ‘Savinase’……Page 554
32.3.4 Determination of the enzymatic activity……Page 556
Enzyme type……Page 557
pH……Page 560
Reuse of used enzyme solutions and storage of enzyme concentrates……Page 561
32.4.1 Dairy `A’……Page 562
32.4.2 Dairy `B’……Page 563
32.5 Risks……Page 565
32.6 Future trends……Page 566
32.7 References……Page 568
33.1 Introduction to contamination analysis in the food industry……Page 570
33.2.1 Conventional microbial detection and enumeration analyses and their limitations……Page 571
33.2.2 Molecular-based contamination analysis……Page 572
33.3 Listeria monocytogenes contamination in food processing environments……Page 574
33.3.1 Characteristics of Listeria monocytogenes contamination of food processing environments……Page 575
33.3.2 Listeria monocytogenes contamination of products……Page 576
33.4.1 Lactic acid bacteria and microbial ecology of packaged meat products……Page 578
33.4.2 Detection of LAB contamination in the production of vacuum-packaged, sliced cooked ham……Page 579
33.4.3 Tracing spoilage LAB at poultry slaughter house and adjacent product manufacture……Page 580
33.5 Applying knowledge from contamination analysis to improve hygienic food manufacturing……Page 581
33.8 References……Page 582
34.1 Introduction……Page 587
34.2.1 Mode of existence on substratum……Page 588
34.2.2 Test species……Page 589
34.2.3 Attachment or retention: active or passive……Page 590
34.3.2 Surface finish……Page 591
34.3.3 Surface roughness……Page 592
34.3.4 Other hygienic surfaces……Page 594
34.4 Organic salt……Page 595
34.4.1 Soil and microorganisms……Page 596
34.4.3 Soil, cells and worn surfaces……Page 597
34.5 Future trends……Page 598
34.8 References……Page 599
35.1 Introduction……Page 603
35.2 Background……Page 604
35.3 Current approaches to monitoring……Page 605
35.3.1 Visual inspection……Page 608
35.3.3 Heat transfer……Page 609
35.3.4 Pressure drop……Page 610
35.3.6 Conductivity……Page 611
35.4.1 Radial flow cell……Page 612
35.4.4 Pilot-scale heat exchangers……Page 613
35.4.5 Heat flux sensor……Page 614
35.5 Industry requirements and potential benefits……Page 615
35.7 Conclusions……Page 616
35.8 References……Page 617
36.1 Introduction……Page 619
36.1.1 Cleanliness, microbial growth/survival and cross-contamination……Page 621
36.1.2 Managing cleaning……Page 622
36.1.3 Monitoring cleaning……Page 624
36.2.1 Swabbing/sponges……Page 627
36.2.2 Replicate organism direct area contact (RODAC) – agar sausages, contact plates, dipslides……Page 633
36.3 Non-microbiological surface sampling……Page 634
36.3.1 ATP bioluminescence……Page 635
36.3.2 Protein and other assays……Page 637
36.4.1 Protocols……Page 639
36.4.2 Strategies……Page 642
36.4.3 Using the results……Page 644
36.5 Future trends……Page 645
36.5.2 Guidelines/cleaning standards……Page 646
36.6 References……Page 647
37.1 Introduction……Page 650
37.2 Microbial viability in the air……Page 651
37.3 Why, how and what to sample……Page 652
37.4 Bioaerosols and bioaerosol samplers……Page 653
37.4.1 Efficiency of the bioaerosol samplers……Page 654
37.5.2 Impactors and impingers……Page 655
37.5.3 Centrifugal samplers……Page 658
37.5.4 Filter systems……Page 659
37.5.6 Particle samplers……Page 660
37.5.7 Conclusions regarding samplers……Page 662
37.6.2 Microscopy and fluorescence techniques……Page 663
37.6.4 ATP bioluminescence……Page 664
37.6.6 Conclusion s regarding assay methods……Page 665
37.7 Interpretation of bioaerosol results……Page 666
37.8 Future trends……Page 667
37.9 References and further reading……Page 668
38.1 Introduction……Page 672
38.2 Types of biocidal products……Page 673
38.2.1 Biocides, activity and usage……Page 674
Other uses: ‘sterilisation’, antisepsis and preservation……Page 675
38.2.2 Factors influencing biocidal activity……Page 676
Factors inherent to the product……Page 677
Factors inherent to the microorganisms……Page 680
38.2.3 Limitations in the use of biocidal products……Page 681
Test strain……Page 682
Detection and count of survivors……Page 683
Quenching antimicrobial activity……Page 685
38.4 Tests for disinfectants and sanitisers……Page 687
38.4.2 Testing the activity of disinfectants and sanitisers……Page 688
Suspension tests……Page 689
Surface tests……Page 690
38.4.3 Other testing methodologies……Page 691
38.5 Test limitations and scope for improvement……Page 692
38.6 Future trends……Page 694
38.7 Sources of further information and advice……Page 695
38.8 References……Page 696
39.1.1 Manufacturers’ responsibilities in tracing cleaners and disinfectants back to their origins……Page 703
39.2 General issues in tracing of cleaning solutions and hygiene products……Page 704
39.2.2 The challenge of analysing cleaners and disinfectants……Page 705
39.3 Particular issues in tracing of hygiene products……Page 706
39.3.1 Control of incoming goods, positive identification……Page 707
Reliable, rapid methods for the identification of deliveries (incoming goods)……Page 708
Measuring the velocity of sound in a product……Page 709
39.3.2 Automatic control of preparing use solutions……Page 710
39.3.3 Control during manual handling and refilling……Page 711
39.3.4 Validations of clean surfaces to be free of residues from hygiene products (within legal requirements)……Page 712
39.3.5 Identification in case of accidents and emergencies, e.g. unidentified spills, unlabelled containers……Page 713
39.5 Future trends……Page 714
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