John N. Briggs0863413595, 9780863413599
Also available:
Weibull Radar Clutter – ISBN 9780863411915 Advanced Radar Techniques and Systems – ISBN 9780863411724
The Institution of Engineering and Technology is one of the world’s leading professional societies for the engineering and technology community. The IET publishes more than 100 new titles every year; a rich mix of books, journals and magazines with a back catalogue of more than 350 books in 18 different subject areas including:
-Power & Energy -Renewable Energy -Radar, Sonar & Navigation -Electromagnetics -Electrical Measurement -History of Technology -Technology Management
Table of contents :
Front Matter……Page 1
Foreword……Page 3
Preface……Page 5
Table of Contents……Page 0
Table of Contents……Page 8
1.1.1 Purpose……Page 37
1.1.2 Scope……Page 39
1.2.1 Merchant Ships……Page 40
1.2.5 Vessel Traffic Services……Page 41
1.2.6 Military Applications……Page 42
1.3.1 The History of Marine Radar……Page 43
1.3.2 Secondary Radars……Page 46
1.3.3 VTS……Page 48
1.3.4 The Current Generation of Radars……Page 49
1.3.5 Future Possibilities……Page 50
1.4.3 IMO……Page 51
1.4.4 National Consultations……Page 52
1.4.6 IALA……Page 53
1.4.9 IEC……Page 54
1.4.12 National and Supra-national Groups, the European Community……Page 55
1.4.13 The Courts……Page 56
1.5.1 Radar for Ships within SOLAS……Page 57
1.6.1 Sources……Page 59
1.6.2 Mathematics and Units……Page 60
1.6.5 Approximate Methods……Page 62
1.7 The Layout of This Book……Page 63
1.8 References……Page 64
2.1.2 Operators Afloat……Page 66
2.1.4 Operators Ashore……Page 70
2.1.5 Basic Radar Operation……Page 72
2.1.6 Target Detectability……Page 74
2.1.7 Radar Construction……Page 76
2.1.8 Decibels……Page 77
2.2.1 Transmission……Page 79
2.2.2 Reception……Page 82
2.2.4 Coherent-on-receive System……Page 83
2.2.6 Ambiguity, Image Frequency, prf Constraints……Page 85
2.2.7 Typical Station Configuration……Page 86
2.3.1 Overview……Page 87
2.3.2 Magnetron Power Source……Page 88
2.3.3 Modulator……Page 89
2.3.5 Spectrum Problems……Page 90
2.4.1 Frequency and Wavelength……Page 92
2.5 Choice of Other Parameters……Page 94
2.6.1 Waveguide……Page 96
2.6.2 Mismatch……Page 100
2.6.3 Feeder Losses……Page 102
2.7.1 Plane and Circularly Polarised Rays……Page 103
2.7.2 Directional Radiation……Page 105
2.7.3 Beam Characteristics……Page 107
2.7.6 Marine Radar Scanners……Page 108
2.7.7 Radiation Patterns……Page 110
2.7.8 Recent Developments……Page 113
2.7.10 Sidelobes……Page 114
2.7.11 VTS Reflector Scanners……Page 115
2.7.12 Elevation Performance, Inverse Cosecant Squared Reflectors……Page 118
2.7.13 Polarisation……Page 119
2.7.14 Surface Tolerance Loss……Page 120
2.7.15 Beamshape and Scanning Losses……Page 121
2.7.17 Testing Antennas……Page 122
2.8.1 Elevation Performance, Marine and VTS Slotted Arrays……Page 124
2.8.2 Inverse Cosecant Squared VTS Scanners……Page 126
2.8.3 Azimuth Radiation Pattern……Page 128
2.9 References……Page 129
3.1 Scanner – Receiving……Page 130
3.2.2 Receiver Protection……Page 131
3.2.3 Duplexer……Page 132
3.3.1 Overview……Page 133
3.3.2 Receiver Noise……Page 135
3.4.2 Mixing……Page 139
3.5.1 IF Section……Page 141
3.5.2 Filter……Page 142
3.5.3 Linear and Square-law Demodulators……Page 144
3.5.4 Factors Affecting Detection……Page 145
3.5.6 Effect of Range Scale Selection……Page 146
3.5.7 Video Amplifier……Page 147
3.5.8 Fast Time Constant, Differentiator……Page 148
3.6.1 The Task……Page 151
3.6.2 PD and PFA for Target Perception……Page 152
3.6.3 Digital Conversion, Detection Cells……Page 153
3.6.4 Logical Process of Target Detection……Page 154
3.6.5 Machine Detection……Page 155
3.6.6 Clutter Map……Page 156
3.6.7 Detection Decision Process……Page 157
3.7.2 Multiple Sensors, Track Combiners……Page 159
3.8 Display Principles……Page 160
3.8.1 Display Format……Page 161
3.8.2 Cathode Ray Tube……Page 162
3.9 Raster Scan Display……Page 163
3.10.1 Raw Radar……Page 166
3.10.2 Cursive Display Problems……Page 168
3.11 Plots on the Screen……Page 169
3.12.1 High Speed Craft……Page 170
3.13 Calibration……Page 171
3.14 References……Page 172
4.1 Introduction……Page 173
4.3.1 Radar Cross Section……Page 174
4.3.2 Two-way Free Space Radar Range Equation……Page 175
4.5.1 Extensions for Practical Environment……Page 177
4.5.3 Reduced Equations……Page 178
4.6.1 Fixed Range Example……Page 179
4.6.2 Graphs……Page 180
4.7 Limitations of Free Space Formulae……Page 184
5.1 Scope of Chapter……Page 186
5.2.1 The Problem……Page 187
5.2.2 Equivalent Geometries……Page 189
5.2.3 Calculation of Refraction Factor from Meteorological Parameters……Page 190
5.2.5 Anaprop……Page 192
5.2.6 Super-refraction, High k, Super-standard Surface Layer……Page 193
5.2.9 Ducts……Page 194
5.2.10 Conditions Causing Anaprop……Page 195
5.3 Measurement of Refraction Factor……Page 196
5.4.1 Introduction……Page 198
5.4.2 Importance of k Depends on Range……Page 200
5.5.1 Ray Paths……Page 201
5.5.2 Range……Page 203
5.5.3 Path Difference of Indirect Ray……Page 205
5.5.4 Useful Angles……Page 206
5.5.6 Variation of Geometrical Parameters with Range……Page 208
5.5.7 Horizon……Page 210
5.5.8 Multipath Peak and Null Ranges……Page 211
5.6.1 Geometrical Analysis……Page 212
5.6.2 Approximate Multipath Ranges……Page 213
5.6.4 Vertical Lobe Structure……Page 214
5.6.5 Dispersion……Page 216
5.7 The Sea……Page 217
5.7.1 Capillary and Gravity Waves……Page 218
5.7.2 Radar Reflection, Capillaries Alone……Page 220
5.7.3 Radar Reflection, Gravity Waves……Page 221
5.7.4 Wave Height……Page 222
5.7.5 Sea State……Page 223
5.8.2 Reflection Coefficient, rho0, of Smooth Plane Surface……Page 225
5.8.3 Reflection Coefficient Variation……Page 227
5.8.4 Reflection Coefficient, rhos, of Surface Roughness……Page 229
5.9.1 Causes of Loss……Page 232
5.9.2 Rain……Page 234
5.9.3 Snow and Hail……Page 236
5.9.4 Fog, Low Cloud and Sandstorms……Page 237
5.9.5 Clear Air Attenuation……Page 239
5.9.8 Foliage……Page 241
5.10 References……Page 242
6.1.1 The Problem……Page 243
6.1.4 Chapter Layout……Page 244
6.3.1 Regions……Page 245
6.3.2 Boundaries……Page 248
6.3.3 Transition and Diffraction Boundary Ranges……Page 249
6.4.1 Value of Multipath Factor……Page 251
6.4.2 Average Value of Multipath Factor……Page 254
6.4.4 Diversity……Page 255
6.5.2 Calculation of Diffraction……Page 256
6.5.3 Change of Multipath Factor with Range……Page 258
6.6.1 Approach……Page 259
6.6.2 Solution of Multipath Equation……Page 260
6.7.1 Full Method……Page 261
6.7.2 Flat-earth Approximation……Page 262
6.8.2 Rate of Change of Multipath Factor at RA, Calm Sea……Page 263
6.8.3 Approximation for Multipath Factor in Near Transition Region……Page 264
6.8.4 Approximate Multipath Factor Near Horizon……Page 266
6.9.1 Use of Sketches……Page 267
6.9.3 Sketching Echo, Fair Weather……Page 268
6.9.5 Really Rough Sketch……Page 270
6.9.6 Accuracy……Page 271
6.10 References……Page 272
7.1.1 Structure of RCS Discussions……Page 273
7.2.1 Basic Process……Page 275
7.2.2 Secondary Reflections……Page 277
7.2.4 Reflecting Shapes……Page 279
7.3.2 Target Dimensions Very Many Wavelengths……Page 281
7.4.1 Introduction……Page 282
7.4.2 Calculation of RCS, Definitions……Page 283
7.4.3 Sphere……Page 284
7.4.4 Disc and Flat Plate……Page 285
7.4.5 Macro- and Micro-geometry, Distorted Plate……Page 288
7.4.6 Dihedral Corner Reflector……Page 289
7.4.7 Distorted Corner……Page 290
7.4.10 Circular Polarisation……Page 291
7.5.1 Cylinder, Metal Wire……Page 292
7.6.1 Legal Requirements, Specifications……Page 293
7.6.3 Commercial Reflectors……Page 295
7.6.4 Problems with Reflectors……Page 297
7.7.1 Trihedral……Page 298
7.7.2 Octahedral……Page 299
7.7.3 Trihedral Clusters……Page 302
7.7.4 Luneberg Lens……Page 303
7.7.5 Helispherical Reflector……Page 305
7.7.8 Phased Patch Array Reflectors……Page 306
7.8.1 Aircraft……Page 307
7.8.3 Buoys and Lighthouses……Page 308
7.8.4 Birds……Page 309
7.9.1 Introduction……Page 310
7.9.3 Radar Normal to Roll Plane……Page 311
7.10.2 Assumptions and Notation……Page 312
7.10.3 Resultant Performance of Pair……Page 313
7.10.4 Examples……Page 315
7.10.6 RCS Fluctuation……Page 317
7.10.7 Tilt……Page 318
7.10.8 Practical Performance……Page 319
7.11 References……Page 320
8.1.1 Passive and Active Reflectors……Page 322
8.1.2 Historical……Page 323
8.1.3 Features of Active Devices……Page 324
8.1.4 Overload……Page 326
8.1.7 Specifications and Legal Requirements……Page 327
8.1.9 Polarisation Compatibility……Page 328
8.2.1 Function……Page 330
8.2.2 Swept Frequency and Agile Types……Page 331
8.2.3 Traffic Capacity……Page 332
8.2.6 Swept Frequency Racon Response……Page 333
8.2.7 Frequency Agile Racon Response……Page 335
8.2.9 Sidelobe Suppression……Page 338
8.2.11 Low Pass Filter……Page 339
8.3.2 Tuning Errors……Page 341
8.3.3 Chirp……Page 342
8.4.1 Notation……Page 343
8.4.2 Interrogation Received at Racon……Page 344
8.4.4 Response on Axis……Page 345
8.4.5 Equivalent RCS……Page 346
8.4.7 Example……Page 347
8.4.8 Balance between Legs……Page 348
8.5.1 The Problem……Page 352
8.5.3 ITOFAR……Page 353
8.5.4 USIFAR……Page 354
8.6.1 Step-sweep Racons……Page 355
8.7 Cross-band Racons and Transponders……Page 356
8.7.2 Radar Automatic Identification System……Page 357
8.8.1 Purpose……Page 358
8.8.3 Display on Radar……Page 359
8.8.4 Performance Equations – Sweep Loss……Page 360
8.10.1 Principle……Page 362
8.10.2 Basic Description……Page 364
8.10.5 Radar Cross Section……Page 366
8.10.6 RTE Response on Axis……Page 367
8.10.8 Saturated RCS, Saturation Range……Page 369
8.10.9 Sidelobes……Page 370
8.10.11 Noise Power Output……Page 371
8.10.12 Example of RTE Noise……Page 372
8.10.13 Example of RTE Performance……Page 373
8.11.1 Scanner RCS……Page 375
8.12.1 General……Page 376
8.12.2 Racons and SARTs……Page 377
8.12.4 Saturated RTEs……Page 378
8.13.3 Circularly Polarised 3 GHz Band Racons……Page 379
8.13.4 Unsaturated RTEs, Slant Polarised Antennas, Linearly Polarised Scanner……Page 380
8.14 Target Tilted Oblique to Radar-target Plane……Page 381
8.15.2 RTE Below Reflector……Page 382
8.15.4 Delayed RTE……Page 384
8.15.6 Practical Conditions, Racons, SARTs and Ramarks……Page 385
8.16 References……Page 386
9.1.1 The Problem……Page 387
9.1.2 Target Echo……Page 388
9.2.2 Uniform RCS Distribution, Critical Range……Page 389
9.2.3 Multipath Factor……Page 391
9.3.2 Integration, Uniform Target, Height Factor……Page 392
9.3.3 Non-uniform Target……Page 393
9.3.4 Choice of Target Height Factor……Page 394
9.4.2 Element Multipath Factor, Flat Earth……Page 395
9.4.3 Target Multipath Factor……Page 396
9.4.5 Multipath Factor Up to Critical Range……Page 398
9.5.1 Critical Range……Page 399
9.5.2 Moderate Sea Condition……Page 400
9.5.3 High Scanner or Target……Page 401
9.6.2 Variation of Echo with Range……Page 402
9.6.3 Non-uniform Targets……Page 403
9.6.4 Sketching Echo Strength……Page 405
10.1.1 Target Parameters Affecting Detection……Page 406
10.1.3 Factors Affecting RCS Seen by Interrogator……Page 407
10.1.5 Our Approach……Page 408
10.2 Ship Size……Page 409
10.3.2 Radar Measurement of Typical Ship RCS……Page 412
10.3.3 Alternative Measurement Strategies……Page 413
10.3.5 Effective Target Height……Page 414
10.4.2 Williams et al…….Page 416
10.4.4 Skolnik……Page 419
10.4.7 Radar Technology Encyclopedia……Page 420
10.4.8 Angle of Depression……Page 421
10.5.1 Approach……Page 422
10.5.3 Micro-geometric Approach, Baseline RCS……Page 424
10.5.4 TPM Smoothness……Page 425
10.5.7 Reconciliation with Reported Results……Page 426
10.6.1 Long-range Detectability……Page 428
10.6.3 Macro-geometry Factors……Page 429
10.6.5 Stealthed Vessels……Page 430
10.7.1 Azimuth Overflow……Page 431
10.7.2 Range Overflow……Page 432
10.8 The RCS to Use for Ships……Page 433
10.9.1 The Problem……Page 434
10.9.3 Displaced Water……Page 435
10.10.1 High Speed Craft……Page 436
10.10.3 Wing in Ground (WIG) Craft (Ekranoplanes)……Page 437
10.11 Lobe Spacing, Yaw and Roll……Page 438
10.12.2 Coastline and Rivers……Page 439
10.12.4 Bridges……Page 442
10.12.7 Fluctuation Characteristics……Page 444
10.13.1 Introduction……Page 447
10.13.3 Bergs and Growlers……Page 448
10.13.5 Icebergs Calved from Glaciers……Page 449
10.14 Echo Strength from Extended Targets, Sketches……Page 450
10.15 References……Page 452
11.1 The Importance of Noise and Clutter to Detection of Targets……Page 453
11.2.1 Noise Power……Page 454
11.2.2 Receiver Input Stage Noise Contribution……Page 455
11.2.3 Noise Factor……Page 456
11.2.5 Bandwidth……Page 457
11.2.7 Atmosphere and Line Attenuation Noise……Page 458
11.2.8 System Noise……Page 459
11.3.4 Noise Bandwidth……Page 460
11.3.7 Amplitude and Power Conventions……Page 461
11.3.8 Distribution and Probability Density, Unmodulated White Noise……Page 462
11.3.9 Effect of Atmospheric and Feeder Noise on Signals……Page 465
11.4.2 Mean Reflectivity……Page 466
11.4.3 Polarisation……Page 468
11.4.4 Mean Received Clutter Power……Page 469
11.6.1 Reflection Mechanism……Page 471
11.6.2 Clutter per Unit Area, sigmaS0……Page 473
11.6.4 Sea Clutter Mean Power……Page 476
11.6.5 Effect of Scanner Height……Page 478
11.7.2 Sea Clutter, High Sea State……Page 479
11.7.4 Weibull Distribution……Page 481
11.8.1 Feeder Ringing……Page 484
11.8.2 Example……Page 486
11.9.1 Other Radars……Page 487
11.10 References……Page 489
12.1.1 What We Mean by Detection……Page 490
12.1.3 Noise and Clutter Fluctuations……Page 491
12.1.4 Detection in Random Noise or Clutter……Page 492
12.1.5 Assumptions……Page 493
12.1.6 The Detection Problem……Page 494
12.1.9 Chapter Layout……Page 496
12.2.1 Detection Threshold, Unmodulated Noise……Page 497
12.2.2 Detection of Sinusoidal Signal……Page 499
12.2.3 Variation of PD with SNR……Page 500
12.3.1 Detection in Non-coherent Receiver……Page 503
12.3.3 Noise Distribution……Page 506
12.3.4 Noisy Signal Distribution……Page 508
12.3.5 Approximations for PD Calculation……Page 509
12.4.2 Clutter with Weibull Distribution……Page 513
12.4.3 Equivalent Sea, Land and Ice Clutter……Page 514
12.5.1 The Problem……Page 517
12.5.2 Swerling Fluctuation Cases……Page 518
12.5.3 Case 0 (Case 5) Non-fluctuating Target……Page 519
12.5.4 Fluctuating Targets……Page 521
12.5.5 Swerling Case 1……Page 522
12.5.6 Swerling Case 2……Page 524
12.5.7 Swerling Case 3a……Page 525
12.5.8 Comparison of Fluctuation Cases……Page 526
12.6.1 Addition of Returns……Page 529
12.6.3 Integration Gain or Loss……Page 531
12.6.4 Swerling Case 2 Targets……Page 534
12.6.7 Cursive Displays……Page 536
12.6.9 Mitigation of Losses in Small Scanners and Wide Bandwidth……Page 537
12.7.2 Inbuilt Swept Gain……Page 538
12.7.3 Adaptive Threshold……Page 539
12.7.4 Operator’s Gain Control……Page 540
12.8.1 Principles……Page 541
12.8.3 Criterion for Precipitation Clutter Decorrelation……Page 542
12.8.4 Space Diversity……Page 543
12.8.6 Receiver Combinations……Page 544
12.8.8 Practical Problems……Page 547
12.9.1 RTEs and Superhet Racons……Page 548
12.9.2 Racons, etc., with Crystal-video Receivers……Page 549
12.10 Practicalities……Page 550
12.10.1 Sidelobes and Axial Ghost Echoes……Page 551
12.10.2 Roll and Pitch……Page 552
12.10.3 Wave Screening……Page 553
12.10.6 Anomalous Performance with Small Targets……Page 555
12.11.2 Noise……Page 556
12.11.4 Sea-waves……Page 557
12.12 References……Page 558
13.1.1 The Need to Consider Accuracy……Page 560
13.1.2 Display of Target Information……Page 561
13.1.3 Sources of Error……Page 562
13.2.1 Absolute and Relative Error……Page 563
13.2.2 Systematic Error……Page 564
13.2.3 Random Error……Page 566
13.2.4 Latency……Page 567
13.3.1 Introduction……Page 569
13.3.3 Service Loss……Page 570
13.3.4 Receiver Hardware Losses……Page 571
13.3.5 System Processing Losses……Page 572
13.3.6 Point Target Responses……Page 573
13.3.9 Environmental Conditions……Page 574
13.4.1 Approximations within Calculations……Page 576
13.4.3 Mounting Heights……Page 577
13.5.2 Ship Motions……Page 578
13.5.3 Scan Plane Tilt Errors……Page 579
13.5.4 Effects of SNR and Bandwidth on Plot Accuracy……Page 581
13.5.5 Plotting Aid Prediction Accuracy……Page 582
13.5.6 Manoeuvres……Page 585
13.5.7 Identity Swap……Page 587
13.6.1 Shipborne Radars……Page 589
13.6.3 Autonomous Radar Heads with Track-formers……Page 591
13.7 References……Page 592
14.1 Introduction……Page 593
14.2.1 General Arrangement……Page 594
14.2.3 Transceiver Panel……Page 596
14.2.4 Scanner and Feeder Panel, and Table S2……Page 597
14.2.5 Range Bracket Panel……Page 598
14.2.7 Operator Panel and Table S1……Page 599
14.2.8 Environment Panel……Page 600
14.2.9 Results and User Panels……Page 601
14.3.1 Layout……Page 602
14.3.3 Scanner and Target Heights……Page 603
14.4.2 Interference Region Multipath……Page 604
14.5.1 Effective Mode……Page 605
14.5.4 Sea Clutter……Page 606
14.6.3 Swerling Case 0……Page 607
14.6.7 Event Labels……Page 608
14.7 Sidelobes……Page 609
14.8.1 Chart Construction……Page 610
14.8.3 Chart 2, Geometry……Page 611
14.9.2 Remainder of Spreadsheet……Page 612
14.10.1 Target Types……Page 614
14.10.4 Device Characteristics……Page 616
14.10.5 Device Interrogation Panel……Page 617
14.10.7 Remaining Matrix Panels……Page 618
14.10.9 Charts……Page 619
14.11 References……Page 620
15.1.1 Nine Gigahertz Band, Small Craft Target……Page 621
15.2.2 PD Variation with Range, Effect of Scanner Height……Page 630
15.2.3 Scanner Aperture……Page 634
15.2.5 Atmospheric Refraction……Page 636
15.2.8 Purchase Specification……Page 639
15.2.9 Site Acceptance Tests……Page 643
15.3.1 Detection of Cliffs……Page 644
15.3.2 Cliff Height……Page 645
15.4.1 Detecting a Buoy Racon……Page 646
15.4.2 Detecting a Radar Target Enhancer……Page 649
16.1 Introduction……Page 650
16.2.1 Customer Requirements……Page 651
16.2.2 Regulatory Change……Page 652
16.2.4 Environment……Page 654
16.3.1 Transmitters……Page 655
16.3.2 Scanners……Page 657
16.3.3 Digitisation……Page 658
16.4.2 Long Pulses……Page 659
16.4.3 Pulse Compression……Page 660
16.4.4 Continuous Wave Transmission……Page 661
16.4.5 Target Profiling……Page 662
16.4.6 Monopulse……Page 665
16.5 Integrated Systems……Page 666
16.6 Infrastructure and Implementation……Page 667
16.7 Other Uses of Radar for Commercial and Leisure Shipping……Page 668
16.8 In Conclusion……Page 670
Appendix A1: Glossary……Page 672
A2.2 Rayleigh Distribution……Page 681
A2.3.1 Noise……Page 682
A2.3.2 Signal……Page 684
A2.4 Solution of Eq. (12.8)……Page 685
A2.6 References……Page 686
A……Page 687
B……Page 691
C……Page 692
D……Page 694
E……Page 700
F……Page 703
G……Page 705
H……Page 706
I……Page 707
L……Page 710
M……Page 711
N……Page 714
O……Page 716
P……Page 717
R……Page 720
S……Page 729
T……Page 736
U……Page 737
W……Page 738
Y……Page 739
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