D. KOSHAL0750611545, 9780750611541
Table of contents :
Table of Contents……Page 0
Front Matter……Page 1
List of Contributors……Page 3
Preface……Page 4
Table of Contents……Page 5
1. Materials Properties and Selection……Page 7
1.1.3 Hardness……Page 9
1.1.6 Creep and Stress Rupture……Page 10
1.2.1 Introduction……Page 11
1.2.4 The Classical Procedure……Page 12
1.2.9 Computerisation of Materials Selection……Page 14
1.3.2 Types of Wrought Steel……Page 17
1.3.3 Steelmaking and Casting of Wrought-Steel Ingots……Page 19
1.3.4 Mechanical Working of Metals……Page 22
1.3.5 Constitution and Heat Treatment of Ferritic Steels……Page 28
1.3.6 Carbon/Carbon-Manganese Steels……Page 32
1.3.8 Electrical Steels……Page 35
1.3.9 Hardened and Tempered Steels……Page 36
1.3.11 Case Hardening Steels……Page 39
1.3.12 Stainless Steels……Page 43
1.3.13. Corrosion Resistance of Stainless Steels……Page 46
1.3.14 Heat Resisting Steels……Page 51
1.3.15 Toughness in Steels……Page 52
1.3.16 Maraging Steels……Page 53
1.3.17 Weldability of Steels……Page 54
1.3.18 Tool Steels……Page 56
1.3.19 Steels for Springs……Page 57
1.3.22 Grey Cast Iron……Page 58
1.3.24 Austempered Ductile Iron……Page 61
1.3.29 High Chromium Iron……Page 62
1.4.1 Copper and its Alloys……Page 63
1.4.2 Aluminium and its Alloys……Page 68
1.4.3 Titanium and its Alloys……Page 78
1.4.4 Magnesium and its Alloys……Page 84
1.4.5 Nickel and its Alloys……Page 90
1.4.6 Zinc and its Alloys……Page 96
1.4.8 Cobalt and its Alloys……Page 101
1.4.9 Other Non-Ferrous Metals……Page 102
1.5.1 Introduction……Page 104
1.5.2 Reinforcing Fibres……Page 105
1.5.5 Properties of Filamentary Polymer Composites……Page 106
1.5.6 Applications of Filamentary Polymer Composites……Page 109
1.5.7 Discontinuous Fibre Reinforced Polymer Composites……Page 111
1.5.8 Carbon-Carbon Composites……Page 112
1.5.10 Fibre Reinforced Glasses and Ceramics……Page 114
1.5.11 Reinforced Concrete……Page 116
1.5.14 Wood and Resin-Impregnated Wood……Page 117
1.6.3 Clay Based Ceramics……Page 120
1.6.4 Oxide Based Ceramics……Page 121
1.6.5 Non-Oxide Ceramics……Page 122
1.6.6 Carbons and Graphites……Page 123
1.6.10 Mechanical Properties……Page 124
1.6.12 The Future Prospects of Engineering Ceramics……Page 126
2. Polymers, Plastics and Rubbers……Page 131
2.1.3 Amorphous Thermoplastics and Orientation……Page 132
2.1.6 The Elastic State and Vulcanised Rubber……Page 133
2.1.8 Additives……Page 134
2.2.1 Stress-Strain Properties in Tension……Page 135
2.2.5 Stress-Strain Properties of Rubber in Compression……Page 136
2.2.6 Resilience……Page 138
2.2.8 Non-Rubbery Properties of Technical Importance……Page 139
2.3 Survey of Commercial Rubbery Materials……Page 140
2.3.1 Tyre Rubbers……Page 142
2.3.2 Special Purpose Rubbers……Page 143
2.4 General Properties of Plastics……Page 144
2.4.2 Thermal Stability……Page 145
2.4.3 Flame Retardancy……Page 146
2.4.4 Toughness……Page 147
2.4.5 Creep Behaviour……Page 148
2.4.6 Solvent Resistance……Page 149
2.5.1 Major Tonnage Thermoplastics……Page 151
2.5.2 Engineering Thermoplastics……Page 153
2.5.4 Thermosetting Plastics……Page 154
2.6.2 Processing in the Molten State……Page 155
2.6.4 Transfer Moulding……Page 157
2.6.5 Injection Moulding……Page 158
2.6.6 Extrusion……Page 160
2.6.7 Blow Moulding……Page 162
2.6.9 Thermoforming……Page 164
2.6.10 Other Processing Methods……Page 165
2.7 Design of Rubber Components……Page 166
2.7.1 Rubber Springs……Page 167
2.7.3 Vibration Isolation……Page 170
2.8.1 Designing Under Creep Loading……Page 172
2.8.3 Design of Plastic Parts……Page 173
3. Metal Casting and Moulding Processes……Page 175
3.1 Economics of Casting and Moulding……Page 176
3.2.1 Pattern Making……Page 177
3.2.2 Moulding and Casting Processes……Page 178
3.2.3 Making a Mould……Page 179
3.2.4 Gating Systems……Page 182
3.2.5 Risers……Page 185
3.3.1 Low Pressure Die Casting……Page 187
3.3.2 High Pressure Die Casting……Page 188
3.4.1. The Shaw Process……Page 190
3.5 Shell Moulding……Page 192
3.6 Sintering……Page 194
4. Metal Forming……Page 197
4.1.1 Introductory Observations……Page 198
4.1.2 Classification of Process……Page 199
4.1.3 Characteristics of the Basic Groups of Processes……Page 201
4.2.1 Force/Torque Estimate……Page 206
4.2.2 Flow Characteristics……Page 207
4.3.1 Basic Concepts……Page 208
4.3.2 Yielding and Criteria of Yielding……Page 212
4.3.3 Redundancy and Geometry Factors……Page 213
4.3.5 Mathematical Modelling and Metal-Forming Processes……Page 214
4.3.6 Simulation of Metal Flow……Page 218
4.4.1 Concepts of Design……Page 223
4.4.2 Lubrication……Page 227
4.4.3 Tools Materials……Page 228
4.4.4 Residual Stresses……Page 229
4.5.1 Classification of Processes……Page 231
4.5.2 Roll Design……Page 234
4.5.4 Rolling of Plate, Strip and Sheet……Page 236
4.5.6 Rolling of Seamless Tubing……Page 238
4.5.7 Tooling for Tube Rolling……Page 244
4.5.8 Flow Forming……Page 247
4.5.9 Rolling of Machine Parts……Page 249
4.5.11 Basic Rolling Theory……Page 250
4.6.1 Basic Concepts……Page 253
4.6.2 An Outline of Open-, Impression- and Closed-Die Operations……Page 254
4.6.3 Special Applications of Closed-Die Forging……Page 259
4.6.4 Subsidiary Forging Operations……Page 262
4.6.6 Rotary Tube Forging……Page 263
4.6.8 Cast-Perform Forging……Page 266
4.6.10 Tooling in Standard Forging Operations……Page 267
4.6.11 Estimation of Forging Loads……Page 269
4.7.2 Basic Extrusion Operations……Page 271
4.7.3 Conventional Tube Extrusion……Page 276
4.7.4 Cold Extrusion Processes……Page 278
4.7.5 Continuous Extrusion……Page 284
4.7.7 Die Design and Metal Flow……Page 286
4.7.8 Die Materials……Page 294
4.8.1 Introduction……Page 295
4.8.2 Basic Concepts of Wire Drawing……Page 296
4.8.4 Mechanisms of Wire Drawing……Page 297
4.8.5 The Drawing Stress……Page 298
4.8.6 Tool Design in Tube Drawing……Page 300
4.8.7 Special Tube-Drawing Operations……Page 303
4.8.8 Drawing Loads……Page 304
4.9.1 Forming Processes……Page 305
4.9.2 Shearing Operations……Page 306
4.9.3 Bending……Page 307
4.9.5 Stretch Forming……Page 309
4.9.7 Hydroforming and Hydromechanical Forming……Page 310
4.10.1 Introduction……Page 311
4.10.2 Sources of Energy……Page 313
4.10.3 Forming Systems……Page 318
4.10.5 Powder Compaction……Page 321
4.10.6 Explosive Forging……Page 324
4.11.1 Superplasticity……Page 326
4.11.2 Mashy State Operations……Page 327
5. Large-Chip Metal Removal……Page 331
5.1 Large-Chip Processes……Page 332
5.2 Cutting-Tool Geometry……Page 335
5.3.3 Sintered Carbides……Page 339
5.4 Chip Formation and Cutting Parameters……Page 340
5.4.2 Cutting Fluids……Page 342
5.5.1 Forces in Turning Processes……Page 343
5.5.2 Forces and Power in Milling Operations……Page 344
5.7 Tool-Life Assessment……Page 346
5.7.3 Plastic Deformation of the Tool……Page 347
5.7.7 Tool-Life Relationships……Page 348
5.8.1 Minimum-Cost Production……Page 349
5.8.3 The Influence of Chatter……Page 354
6. Non-Chip Metal Removal……Page 355
6.2.1 Electrical Discharge Machining……Page 356
6.2.3 Electrolytic Grinding……Page 357
6.3.2 Ultrasonic Machining……Page 358
6.4.2 Laser-Beam Machining……Page 360
6.4.3 Plasma-Arc Machining……Page 361
7. Electronic Manufacture……Page 362
7.2.3 Manual Assembly with the Aid of an Assembly Director……Page 363
7.4.1 Active Components……Page 364
7.4.2 Passive Components……Page 365
7.4.3 Component Packaging……Page 366
7.5.2 Double-Sided PCB with SMCs on Both Sides……Page 367
7.5.4 Mixed Assembly, Double-Sided PCB with SMCs on Both Sides……Page 368
7.6.2 Curing the Adhesive……Page 369
7.7.1 Wave Soldering……Page 370
7.7.2 Reflow Methods……Page 371
7.11 Printed-Circuit-Board Layout……Page 372
7.13 Introducing Surface-Mount Technology……Page 373
8. Metal Finishing Processes……Page 374
8.1 Introduction……Page 375
8.3 Grinding Wheels and Grinding Wheel Selection……Page 376
8.3.1 Grit Size……Page 377
8.4 Mounting the Grinding Wheel……Page 378
8.5 Balancing and Dressing……Page 379
8.6 Grinding Mechanics……Page 381
8.9 Grinding Forces……Page 383
8.11.1 Surface Grinding……Page 384
8.11.3 Cylindrical Grinding……Page 385
8.11.4 Centreless Grinding……Page 387
8.12 Newer Abrasives and Grinding Techniques……Page 389
8.13.1 Basic Principles……Page 390
8.14.2 Tooling……Page 392
8.14.6 Effects of Honing……Page 393
8.15.1 Machining Set-Up and Machining Mechanisms……Page 396
8.16 Coated Abrasives……Page 398
8.16.1 Cutting Mechanism……Page 399
8.17.2 Abrasive Belt Selection……Page 400
8.17.4 Factors Controlling Abrasive Belt Performance……Page 401
8.17.5 Abrasive Belt Machines……Page 402
8.19.1 Abrasives……Page 403
8.19.2 Lapping Processes……Page 404
8.21 Blasting Processes……Page 406
8.21.1 Blasting Abrasives……Page 407
9. Fabrication……Page 408
9.1.1 Automatic Insertion of Fasteners……Page 409
9.1.3 Threaded Fasteners……Page 410
9.1.4 Load Sensing in Bolts……Page 411
9.1.5 Threadlocking……Page 412
9.1.10 Washers……Page 413
9.1.14 Rivets……Page 414
9.1.15 List of Suppliers of Fasteners……Page 416
9.2.1 Welding……Page 417
9.2.2 Soldering and Brazing……Page 431
9.2.3 Productivity and Welding Economics……Page 432
9.3.2 Modern Engineering Adhesives by Category……Page 433
9.3.3 Designing with Adhesives……Page 434
9.3.4 Anaerobic Adhesives……Page 435
9.3.6 Toughened Acrylics……Page 438
9.3.9 Health-and-Safety Considerations……Page 439
10. Electrical and Electronic Principles……Page 441
10.2.2 Simple Resistive Circuits……Page 443
10.2.7 Electrostatic Systems……Page 444
10.2.8 Simple Capacitive Circuits……Page 445
10.2.12 Electromagnetic Systems……Page 446
10.2.15 Faraday’s Law……Page 447
10.2.16 Self-Induced e.m.f…….Page 448
10.2.19 Hysteresis in Magnetic Circuits……Page 449
10.2.21 Kirchhoff’s Laws and the Magnetic Circuit……Page 450
10.2.24 Resistive-Inductive and Resistive-Capacitance Circuits Under Transient Switching Conditions……Page 451
10.2.25 Steady-State A.C…….Page 453
10.2.28 The Parallel Resistive-Inductive-Capacitance Circuit……Page 454
10.2.30 Frequency Response of Circuits……Page 455
10.2.32 Doped Semiconductors……Page 456
10.2.34 A.C. Rectification……Page 457
10.2.35 The Zener Diode……Page 458
10.3.1 The Bipolar, or Junction, Transistor……Page 459
10.3.3 Common Emitter Characteristics……Page 460
10.3.5 The Field Effect Transistor……Page 462
10.3.7 The Thyristor……Page 463
10.3.9 Amplifiers……Page 464
10.3.13 Positive Feedback and Stability……Page 465
10.3.14 The Operational Amplifier……Page 466
10.3.17 Power Supplies……Page 468
10.3.19 Boolean Algebra……Page 470
10.3.20 Digital Electronic Gates……Page 471
10.3.22 Logic Systems Using Simple Gates……Page 472
10.3.23 Logic Systems Using NAND and NOR gates only……Page 473
10.3.25 Latches……Page 476
10.3.26 The Karnaugh Map……Page 477
10.3.27 Minimisation of Boolean Expressions……Page 478
10.3.29 Tri-State Logic……Page 479
10.3.30 Sequential Logic Circuits……Page 480
10.3.31 Registers and Counters……Page 481
10.3.33 Digital Computers and Microprocessors……Page 483
10.3.34 Application Specific Integrated Circuits……Page 484
10.4.1 The D.C. Generator……Page 485
10.4.3 The Separately Excited Generator……Page 487
10.4.6 The Compound-Wound Generator……Page 489
10.4.8 The Shunt-Wound Motor……Page 490
10.4.11 Starting D.C. Motors……Page 491
10.4.12 Speed Control of D.C. Motors……Page 492
10.4.16 Star and Delta Connections……Page 493
10.4.18 Power in Three-Phase Circuits……Page 494
10.4.20 Synchronous Motors……Page 495
10.4.22 Starting Induction Motors……Page 496
10.4.24 Speed Control of Induction Motors……Page 497
10.4.25 Single-Phase Induction Motors……Page 498
10.4.27 The Stepper Motor……Page 499
10.4.30 Basic Transformer Action……Page 501
10.4.35 Transformer Efficiency……Page 502
10.4.38 Autotransformers……Page 503
10.5.4 Protection……Page 504
10.5.7 Low-Voltage Supplies……Page 505
11. Microprocessors, Instrumentation and Control……Page 507
11.1.1 Introduction……Page 509
11.1.2 Mathematical Models of Systems – Time Domain Analysis……Page 511
11.1.3 Laplace Notation for Differential Equations – Frequency Domain Analysis……Page 514
11.1.4 Stability Criteria……Page 515
11.2.1 ON/OFF Control……Page 519
11.2.2 Three-Term, or PID, Control……Page 520
11.2.3. Empirical Rules for PID Controller Settings……Page 521
11.2.4 Three-Term Controller with a First-Order System……Page 522
11.2.6 Direct Digital Control……Page 523
11.2.7 Adaptive and Self-Tuning Control……Page 524
11.2.8 Sampled-Data Systems……Page 526
11.2.9 Hierarchical Control Systems……Page 527
11.3.1 Analogue Transducers……Page 528
11.3.3 Measurement of Angular Position……Page 529
11.3.5 Measurement of Rotational Speed……Page 531
11.3.6 Transducers Based on Strain Measurement……Page 532
11.3.7 General Force, Pressure and Acceleration Transducers……Page 534
11.3.9 Measurement of Flow Rate……Page 535
11.3.11 Level Sensing……Page 537
11.3.12 Bar-Code Readers……Page 538
11.3.13 Signal Conditioning……Page 539
11.3.14 Analogue and Digital Filtering……Page 540
11.4.3 Gray Code……Page 543
11.4.5 Bus Structure……Page 544
11.4.7 Input/Output Structure……Page 545
11.4.8 Memory Map……Page 546
11.4.9 Communication Standards……Page 547
11.5.1 Digital Interfacing……Page 548
11.5.2 Controller Output Interface Hardware……Page 549
11.5.3 Analogue Interfacing……Page 552
11.5.4 Multiplexing……Page 555
11.5.6 Robot Control Interfaces……Page 557
11.5.7 Mobility and Automated Guided Vehicles……Page 559
11.6 Microprocessor-Based Control……Page 560
11.6.2 Hardware Requirements……Page 561
11.6.3 Software Considerations……Page 562
11.6.4 Sampling Frequency in Digital Control Loops……Page 563
11.6.5 PID Digital Control Algorithm……Page 564
11.6.6 Speed Control……Page 565
11.6.7 The PC as a Controller……Page 566
11.7.1 The PLC in Automation Systems……Page 567
11.7.3 Ladder Logic Programming……Page 568
11.7.4 Controlling Pneumatic and Hydraulic Systems……Page 570
11.7.6 Networking of PLCs……Page 571
11.8 Robot Applications……Page 572
11.8.1 Robot Geometry……Page 573
11.8.2 Robot Programming……Page 575
11.8.4 Computational Hardware……Page 576
12. Machine Tool Control Elements……Page 578
12.1.2 Closed-Loop Control……Page 579
12.1.5 Path Control……Page 580
12.2.2 Brushless Servomotors……Page 581
12.2.3 Stepping Motors……Page 582
12.3 The Servomotor Control and Amplifier……Page 583
12.4.2 Screw-Nut Systems……Page 584
12.6 Fluid Power Actuator Control Valves……Page 585
12.6.1 Control-Valve Specification……Page 586
12.6.2 Pneumatic Control Valves……Page 587
12.6.3 The Hydraulic Servovalve……Page 588
12.7.1 Position and Proximity Sensors……Page 589
12.7.2 Displacement Transducers……Page 592
12.8 Conclusion……Page 596
13. Communication and Integration Systems……Page 597
13.1.1 Basic Computer Architecture……Page 598
13.1.3 Computer Size Classification……Page 599
13.2.1 Operating System Techniques……Page 600
13.2.2 Addressing and Memory Management Schemes……Page 601
13.3 Computer Languages……Page 602
13.4.3 Semiconductor Storage……Page 603
13.4.4 Magnetic Storage Devices……Page 604
13.5.1 Computer Output Interface Devices……Page 605
13.5.2 Computer Input Interface Devices……Page 606
13.6.1 Basic Communications Classification……Page 612
13.6.2 Transmission Media……Page 615
13.6.4 Network Protocols……Page 616
13.6.5 Typical Networks……Page 617
13.7 Databases……Page 618
13.8 Knowledge-Based Systems……Page 619
14. Computers in Manufacturing……Page 622
14.2.1 The Manufacturing Organisation and CIM……Page 623
14.2.3 Selecting a CIM System……Page 624
14.3.1 Materials Requirements Planning……Page 625
14.3.2 Manufacturing Resources Planning……Page 627
14.3.4 Optimised Production Technology……Page 628
14.3.5 Shop Floor Data Collection……Page 629
14.3.6 Computer Based Simulation Techniques……Page 631
14.4.1 Introduction……Page 632
14.4.2 CAD/CAM Systems……Page 633
14.4.3 Mechanical CAD and CAE……Page 636
14.4.4 Computer-Aided Manufacture……Page 639
14.4.5 Electronic CADCAM……Page 642
14.4.6 Hardware Review……Page 644
14.5.1 Introduction……Page 648
14.5.2 Numerical Control Systems……Page 649
14.5.3 CNC Machines – General Features……Page 651
14.5.4 Machining Centers……Page 655
14.5.5 CNC Turning Centres and Lathes……Page 660
14.5.6 Other CNC Machines……Page 666
14.5.7 Machine Controllers……Page 668
14.5.8 Programming……Page 673
14.6.1 Definition of Flexible Manufacturing……Page 680
14.6.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Flexible Manufacturing……Page 682
14.6.3 Application Areas and Development of Flexible Manufacturing……Page 683
14.6.5 Work Centres……Page 684
14.6.7 Fixtures……Page 685
14.6.8 Tooling……Page 686
14.6.10 Control and Planning Systems……Page 687
14.6.12 Planning a Flexible Manufacturing System……Page 690
14.7.1 Industrial Robotics……Page 696
14.7.2 Industrial Vision Systems……Page 708
14.7.3 Automatic Identification Systems……Page 709
15. Manufacturing and Operations Management……Page 711
15.1.1 Management Processes and Functions……Page 712
15.2.1 Material Conversion Classification……Page 713
15.3 Systems Theory……Page 714
15.3.2 Feedback Control……Page 715
15.4.1 Management of Functions……Page 716
15.4.2 Hierarchical Levels……Page 717
15.4.3 Integrated and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing……Page 720
15.5.1 Strategy and Policy……Page 721
15.5.3 Personnel and General Control……Page 722
15.6.3 Quality Control……Page 723
15.7.2 Make or Buy……Page 724
15.7.4 The Choice of Processing Route……Page 725
15.7.5 Planning Tooling Requirements……Page 726
15.8.1 Organisation at Workshop Level……Page 727
15.8.2 Continuous Line Flow……Page 728
15.8.3 Group Technology – Component Processing……Page 729
15.8.4 Classification and Coding……Page 731
15.8.6 Factory Flow Analysis……Page 732
15.8.8 Group Analysis – the Division into Modules……Page 736
15.8.9 Finding Groups and Families……Page 738
15.9.2 Traditional Assembly Organisations……Page 742
15.10.1 The Long-Term Sales Programme……Page 745
15.11 Production Control……Page 748
15.11.1 Programming – General……Page 750
15.11.3 Flexible Programming……Page 752
15.11.6 Single- and Multi-Cycle Ordering……Page 753
15.11.8 Stock-Based Ordering Methods……Page 756
15.11.9 Flow Control Ordering Methods……Page 758
15.11.10 Dispatching……Page 760
15.12.1 Batch Buying……Page 762
15.12.4 The Choice of Supplier……Page 763
15.13.2 Break-Even Analysis……Page 764
15.15 Secretarial Function……Page 765
15.16 Conclusion……Page 766
16. Manufacturing Strategy……Page 767
16.1.1 The Changing Environment in World Manufacturing……Page 768
16.1.2 The 1980s Environment and Strategies……Page 769
16.1.6 The Manufacturing Organisation Structure……Page 770
16.2.3 Just-In-Time Processing……Page 772
16.2.4 Concurrent Engineering……Page 773
16.2.5 Design for Manufacture and Assembly……Page 775
17. Control of Quality……Page 776
17.1.2 Quality – a Competitive Weapon……Page 777
17.1.3 Quality Costs……Page 779
17.1.4 Quality and the Law……Page 780
17.2.3 Modifications to Design……Page 781
17.2.5 Design Techniques to Aid Quality……Page 782
17.3.1 British Standards Institution……Page 784
17.3.2 Quality Systems……Page 786
17.4.1 Incoming Material……Page 787
17.4.2 In-Process Control……Page 789
17.5.1 Process Variability……Page 791
17.5.2 Problem Identification and Highlighting Techniques……Page 792
17.6.1 Product Inspection Frequency……Page 794
17.6.2 Acceptance Sampling Schemes……Page 795
17.6.4 Use of BS 6001 Sampling Procedures and Tables……Page 796
17.6.5 The Operating-Characteristic Curve……Page 797
17.6.6 Calculating a Non-Standard Quality Plan……Page 799
17.7.2 Variable Control Charts……Page 801
17.7.3 Attribute Control Charts……Page 805
17.8 Measurement of Form and Surface……Page 807
17.8.2 Characteristics of Measuring Instruments……Page 808
17.8.3 Linear Measurement……Page 809
17.8.4 Angular Measurement……Page 810
17.8.5 Limit Gauges……Page 811
17.8.6 Surface Texture……Page 813
17.8.7 Circular (roundness) Measurement……Page 814
17.8.10 Inspection Probes……Page 816
17.8.11 Coordinate Measuring Machines……Page 817
17.8.13 Measurement of Thread Pitch……Page 818
17.9.1 Radiography……Page 821
17.9.2 Ultrasonics……Page 825
17.9.3 Magnetic Particle Testing……Page 827
17.9.4 Penetrant Testing……Page 829
17.9.5 Eddy-Current Testing……Page 830
17.9.6 Electropotential Crack Depth Detection……Page 831
18. Terotechnology and Maintenance……Page 832
18.1.3 Terotechnology and Asset Management……Page 833
18.1.5 The Asset Register……Page 834
18.1.6 Availability and Related Parameters……Page 835
18.2.2 Life-Cycle-Cost Process……Page 837
18.2.3 Marginal Analysis……Page 838
18.2.4 Trade-Off Models……Page 839
18.2.6 Practical Difficulties and Limitations of Life-Cycle Costing……Page 840
18.3.1 Plant-Selection Criteria……Page 841
18.3.4 Plant Replacement……Page 842
18.4.2 Maintenance Costs……Page 843
18.5.1 Maintenance Planning and Control……Page 844
18.5.3 The Profit-Centre Concept……Page 845
18.5.5 Maintenance Revenue……Page 846
18.5.6 Pricing of Maintenance……Page 847
18.5.9 Refurbishing of Parts and Equipment……Page 848
18.6.1 Classifying Types of Maintenance……Page 849
18.6.3 Establishing Preventive-Maintenance Routines……Page 850
18.7.1 Introduction to Condition Monitoring……Page 851
18.7.3 Condition-Monitoring Applications and Sensing Equipment……Page 852
18.8.2 Cost of Stock Holding……Page 854
18.8.3 Safety Stock and Reorder Quantities……Page 855
19. Ergonomics……Page 860
19.1 Introduction……Page 861
19.2 Robotics……Page 862
19.4 The Automated Office……Page 863
19.6 The Economics of Ergonomics……Page 864
19.7 Conclusions……Page 865
A……Page 866
C……Page 867
D……Page 870
F……Page 871
G……Page 872
I……Page 873
M……Page 874
N……Page 876
P……Page 877
R……Page 879
S……Page 880
T……Page 883
V……Page 884
Z……Page 885
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