Mechanical Metallurgy

George E. Dieter0070168938, 9780070168930

Table of contents :
Table of Contents……Page 5
List of Symbols……Page 18
1-1 Scope of this Book……Page 22
1-2 Strength of Materials – Basic Assumptions……Page 24
1-3 Elastic and Plastic Behavior……Page 25
1-4 Average Stress and Strain……Page 26
1-5 Tensile Deformation of Ductile Metal……Page 27
1-6 Ductile vs. Brittle Behavior……Page 28
1-7 What Constitutes Failure ?……Page 29
1-8 Concept of Stress and the Types of Stresses……Page 31
1-9 Concept of Strain and the Types of Strain……Page 33
1-10 Units of Stress and Other Quantities……Page 34
Bibliography……Page 35
2-2 Description of Stress at a Point……Page 36
2-3 State of Stress in Two Dimensions (Plane Stress)……Page 38
2-4 Mohr’s Circle of Stress– Two Dimensions……Page 43
2-5 State of Stress in Three Dimensions……Page 45
2-6 Stress Tensor……Page 49
2-7 Mohr’s Circle– Three Dimensions……Page 54
2-8 Description of Strain at a Point……Page 56
2-9 Mohr’s Circle of Strain……Page 62
2-10 Hydrostatic and Deviator Components of Stress……Page 64
2-11 Elastic Stress-Strain Relations……Page 66
2-12 Calculation of Stresses from Elastic Strains……Page 69
2-13 Strain Energy……Page 71
2-14 Anisotropy of Elastic Behavior……Page 72
2-15 Stress Concentration……Page 79
2-16 Finite Element Method……Page 84
Bibliography……Page 87
3-1 Introduction……Page 88
3-2 The Flow Curve……Page 89
3-3 True Stress and True Strain……Page 91
3-4 Yielding Criteria for Ductile Metals……Page 95
3-5 Combined Stress Tests……Page 99
3-6 The Yield Locus……Page 100
3-7 Anisotropy in Yielding……Page 101
3-8 Yield Surface and Normality……Page 103
3-9 Octahedral Shear Stress and Shear Strain……Page 105
3-10 Invariants of Stress and Strain……Page 106
3-11 Plastic Stress-Strain Relations……Page 107
3-12 Two-Dimensional Plastic Flow– Slip-Line Field Theory……Page 111
Bibliography……Page 118
4-1 Introduction……Page 120
4-2 Concepts of Crystal Geometry……Page 121
4-3 Lattice Defects……Page 125
4-4 Deformation by Slip……Page 131
4-5 Slip in a Perfect Lattice……Page 134
4-6 Slip by Dislocation Movement……Page 136
4-7 Critical Resolved Shear Stress for Slip……Page 141
4-8 Deformation of Single Crystals……Page 144
4-9 Deformation of Face-Centered Cubic Crystals……Page 147
4-10 Deformation by Twinning……Page 149
4-11 Stacking Faults……Page 152
4-12 Deformation Bands and Kink Bands……Page 154
4-13 Microstrain Behavior……Page 155
4-14 Strain Hardening of Single Crystals……Page 156
Bibliography……Page 161
5.2 Observation of Dislocations……Page 162
5-3 Burger’s Vector and the Dislocation Loop……Page 167
5-4 Dislocations in the Face-Centered Cubic Lattice……Page 171
5-6 Dislocations in the Body-Centered Cubic Lattice……Page 176
5-7 Stress Fields and Energies of Dislocations……Page 177
5-8 Forces on Dislocations……Page 181
5-9 Forces Between Dislocations……Page 182
5-10 Dislocation Climb……Page 185
5-11 Intersection af Dislocations……Page 187
5-12 Jogs……Page 189
5-13 Dislocation Sources……Page 192
5-14 Multiplication of Dislocations……Page 193
5-15 Dislocation-Point Defect Interactions……Page 196
5-16 Dislocation Pile-Ups……Page 198
Bibliography……Page 200
6-1 Introduction……Page 201
6-2 Grain Boundaries and Deformation……Page 202
6-3 Strengthening From Grain Boundaries……Page 205
6-4 Low-Angle Grain Boundaries……Page 210
6-5 Yield-Point Phenomenon……Page 214
6-6 Strain Aging……Page 218
6-7 Solid-Solution Strengthening……Page 220
6-8 Deformation of Two-Phase Aggregates……Page 225
6-9 Strengthening from Fine Particles……Page 229
6-10 Fiber Strengthening……Page 237
6-11 Strengthening Due to Point Defects……Page 243
6-12 Martensite Strengthening……Page 244
6-13 Cold-Worked Structure……Page 246
6-14 Strain Hardening……Page 248
6-15 Annealing of Cold-Worked Metal……Page 250
6-16 Bauschinger Effect……Page 253
6-17 Preferred Orientation (Texture)……Page 254
Bibliography……Page 257
7-1 Introduction……Page 258
7-2 Types of Fracture in Metals……Page 259
7-3 Theoretical Cohesive Strength of Metals……Page 260
7-4 Griffith Theory of Brittle Fracture……Page 263
7-5 Fracture of Single Crystals……Page 267
7-6 Metallographic Aspects of Fracture……Page 268
7-7 Fractography……Page 271
7-8 Dislocation Theories of Brittle Fracture……Page 273
7-9 Ductile Fracture……Page 279
7-10 Notch Effects……Page 282
7-11 Concept of the Fracture Curve……Page 285
7-12 Fracture Under Combined Stresses……Page 287
7-13 Effect of High Hydrostatic Pressure on Fracture……Page 288
Bibliography……Page 289
8-1 Engineering Stress-Strain Curve……Page 291
8-2 True-Stress – True-Strain Curve……Page 299
8-3 Instability in Tension……Page 305
8-4 Stress Distribution at the Neck……Page 308
8-5 Ductility Measurement in Tension Test……Page 309
8-6 Effect of Strain Rate on Flow Properties……Page 311
8-7 Effect of Temperature on Flow Properties……Page 317
8-8 Influence of Testing Machine on Flow Properties……Page 320
8-9 Constitutive Equations……Page 322
8-10 Further Consideration of Instability……Page 323
8-11 Stress-Relaxation Testing……Page 325
8-12 Thermally Activated Deformation……Page 326
8-13 Notch Tensile Test……Page 330
8-14 Tensile Properties of Steel……Page 332
8-15 Anisotropy of Tensile Properties……Page 338
Bibliography……Page 340
9-1 Introduction……Page 341
9-2 Brinell Hardness……Page 342
9-3 Meyer Hardness……Page 343
9-4 Analysis of Indentation by an Indenter……Page 344
9-5 Relationship Between Hardness and the Flow Curve……Page 345
9-6 Vickers Hardness……Page 347
9-7 Rockwell Hardness Test……Page 348
9-8 Microhardness Tests……Page 350
9-9 Hardness-Conversion Relationships……Page 351
9-10 Hardness at Elevated Temperatures……Page 352
Bibliography……Page 353
10-1 Introduction……Page 354
10-2 Mechanical Properties in Torsion……Page 355
10-3 Torsional Stresses for Large Plastic Strains……Page 357
10-4 Types of Torsion Failures……Page 359
10-5 Torsion Test vs. Tension Test……Page 360
10-6 Hot Torsion Testing……Page 361
Bibliography……Page 363
11-1 Introduction……Page 364
11-2 Strain-Energy Release Rate……Page 365
11-3 Stress Intensity Factor……Page 367
11-4 Fracture Toughness and Design……Page 369
11-5 Kic Plane-Strain Toughness Testing……Page 372
11-6 Plasticity Corrections……Page 376
11-7 Crack-Opening Displacement……Page 378
11-8 J-Integral……Page 380
11-9 R-Curve……Page 384
11-10 Probabalistic Aspects of Fracture Mechanics……Page 385
11-11 Toughness of Materials……Page 388
Bibliography……Page 390
12-1 Introduction……Page 391
12-2 Stress Cycles……Page 392
12-3 The S-N Curve……Page 394
12-4 Statistical Nature of Fatigue……Page 396
12-5 Effect of Mean Stress on Fatigue……Page 398
12-6 Cyclic Stress-Strain Curve……Page 403
12-7 Low-Cycle Fatigue……Page 406
12-8 Strain-Life Equation……Page 408
12-9 Structural Features of Fatigue……Page 410
12-10 Fatigue Crack Propagation……Page 414
12-11 Effect of Stress Concentration on Fatigue……Page 418
12-12 Size Effect……Page 422
12-13 Surface Effects and Fatigue……Page 423
12-14 Fatigue Under Combined Stresses……Page 428
12-15 Cumulative Fatigue Damage and Sequence Effects……Page 429
12-16 Effect of Metallurgical Variables on Fatigue……Page 431
12-17 Design for Fatigue……Page 435
12-18 Machine Design Approach – Infinite-Life Design……Page 437
12-19 Local Strain Approach……Page 438
12-20 Corrosion Fatigue……Page 441
12-21 Effect of Temperature on Fatigue……Page 444
Bibliography……Page 446
13-1 The High-Temperature Materials Problem……Page 448
13-2 Time-Dependent Mechanical Behavior……Page 450
13-3 The Creep Curve……Page 454
13-4 The Stress-Rupture Test……Page 457
13-5 Structural Changes During Creep……Page 458
13-6 Mechanisms of Creep Deformation……Page 461
13-7 Deformation Mechanism Maps……Page 465
13-8 Activation Energy for Steady-State Creep……Page 466
13-9 Superplasticity……Page 468
13-10 Fracture at Elevated Temperature……Page 469
13-11 High-Temperature Alloys……Page 473
13-12 Presentation of Engineering Creep Data……Page 475
13-13 Prediction of Long-Time Properties……Page 477
13-14 Creep Under Combined Stress……Page 481
13-15 Creep-Fatigue Interaction……Page 482
Bibliography……Page 486
14-1 The Brittle-Fracture Problem……Page 487
14-2 Notched-Bar Impact Tests……Page 488
14-3 Instrumented Charpy Test……Page 491
14-4 Significance of Transition-Temperature Curve……Page 492
14-5 Metallurgical Factors Affecting Transition Temperature……Page 494
14-6 Drop-Weight Test and Other Large-Scale Tests……Page 499
14-7 Fracture Analysis Diagram……Page 502
14-8 Temper Embrittlement……Page 505
14-9 Environment Sensitive Fracture……Page 506
14-10 Flow and Fracture Under Very Rapid Rates of Loading……Page 512
Bibliography……Page 515
15-1 Classification of Forming Processes……Page 518
15-2 Mechanics of Metalworking……Page 521
15-3 Flow-Stress Determination……Page 534
15-4 Temperature in Metalworking……Page 539
15-5 Strain-Rate Effects……Page 545
15-6 Metallurgical Structure……Page 547
15-7 Friction and Lubrication……Page 554
15-8 Deformation-Zone Geometry……Page 564
15-9 Hydrostatic Pressure……Page 565
15-10 Workability……Page 569
15-11 Residual Stresses……Page 572
15-12 Experimental Techniques for Metalworking Processes……Page 574
15-13 Computer-Aided Manufacturing……Page 576
Bibliography……Page 578
16-1 Classification of Forging……Page 579
16-2 Forging Equipment……Page 582
16-3 Forging in Plane Strain……Page 586
16-4 Open-Die Forging……Page 590
16-5 Closed-Die Forging……Page 592
16-7 Forging Defects……Page 596
16-8 Powder Metallurgy Forging……Page 598
Bibliography……Page 600
17-1 Classification of Rolling Processes……Page 601
17-2 Rolling Mills……Page 602
17-3 Hot-Rolling……Page 605
17-4 Cold-Rolling……Page 606
17-5 Rolling of Bars and Shapes……Page 607
17-6 Forces and Geometrical Relationships in Rolling……Page 608
17-7 Simplified Analysis of Rolling Load: Rolling Variables……Page 612
17-8 Problems and Defects in Rolled Products……Page 616
17-9 Rolling-Mill Control……Page 621
17-10 Theories of Cold Rolling……Page 622
17-11 Theories of Hot Rolling……Page 626
17-12 Torque and Power……Page 627
Bibliography……Page 630
18-1 Classification……Page 631
18-2 Extrusion Equipment……Page 633
18-3 Hot Extrusion……Page 635
18-4 Deformation, Lubrication, and Defects in Extrusion……Page 637
18-5 Analysis of the Extrusion Process……Page 640
18-7 Hydrostatic Extrusion……Page 645
18-8 Extrusion of Tubing……Page 646
Bibliography……Page 649
19-2 Rod and Wiredrawing……Page 650
19-3 Analysis of Wiredrawing……Page 654
19-4 Tube-Drawing Processes……Page 661
19-5 Analysis of Tube Drawing……Page 662
19-6 Residual Stresses in Rod, Wire, and Tubes……Page 663
Bibliography……Page 665
20-1 Introduction……Page 666
20-2 Forming Methods……Page 668
20-3 Shearing and Blanking……Page 672
20-4 Bending……Page 674
20-5 Stretch Forming……Page 677
20-6 Deep Drawing……Page 681
20-7 Forming Limit Criteria……Page 688
20-8 Defects in Formed Parts……Page 691
Bibliography……Page 693
21-1 Types of Machining Operations……Page 694
21-2 Mechanisms of Machining……Page 696
21-3 Three-Dimensional Machining……Page 705
21-4 Temperature in Metal Cutting……Page 707
21-5 Cutting Fluids……Page 708
21-6 Tool Materials and Tool Life……Page 709
21-7 Grinding Processes……Page 714
21-8 Nontraditional Machining Processes……Page 719
21-9 Economics of Machining……Page 720
Bibliography……Page 723
A. The International System of Units……Page 724
B. Problems……Page 727
Answers to Selected Problems……Page 749
Name Index……Page 754
Subject Index……Page 762