Loss Prevention: Hazard Idenitification, Assessment and Control (Volume 1)

Frank Lees9780750615471, 0-7506-1547-8

Over the last three decades the process industries have grown very rapidly, with corresponding increases in the quantities of hazardous materials in process, storage or transport. Plants are becoming larger and are often situated in or close to densely populated areas. Increased hazard of loss of life or property is continually highlighted with incidents such as Flixborough, Bhopal, Chernobyl and Piper Alpha. Increasing attention must therefore be paid to the control of these hazards, and in particular the need to develop a comprehensive approach to the avoidance of human and economic loss; this is loss prevention. Frank Lees has completely rewritten this classic reference work on loss prevention, bringing every aspect up to date. New chapters are included on computers, artificial intelligence and expert systems, and new appendices feature recent disasters such as Bhopal and Piper Alpha. The many thousands of references have been updated along with standards and codes of practice. Written in a clear and concise style, ‘Loss Prevention in the Process Industries’ covers traditional areas of personal safety as well as the more technological aspects and thus provides balanced and in-depth coverage of the whole field of safety and loss prevention.

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Table of contents :
Preface to Second Edition……Page 5
Preface to First Edition……Page 7
Acknowledgements……Page 11
Notation……Page 13
Use of References……Page 14
Contents of Volume 1……Page 15
Contents of Volume 2……Page 20
Contents of Volume 3……Page 25
1 Introduction……Page 29
1.3 Safety and Environment Concerns……Page 31
1.4 Loss Prevention – 1……Page 32
1.5 Large Single-Stream Plants……Page 33
1.6 Loss Prevention – 2……Page 36
1.7 Total Loss Control……Page 37
1.8 Quality Assurance……Page 38
1.9 Total Quality Management……Page 39
1.15 Overview……Page 40
15 Emission and Dispersion……Page 0
2.1 The Accident Process……Page 42
2.3 Injury Statistics……Page 44
2.4 Major Disasters……Page 49
2.5 Major Process Hazards……Page 50
2.6 Fire Loss Statistics……Page 53
2.7 Fire and Explosion……Page 57
2.8 Causes of Loss……Page 58
2.9 Downtime Losses……Page 59
2.11 Trend of Losses……Page 64
2.12 Case Histories……Page 65
3.1 Factory Legislation……Page 70
3.2 Factories Act 1961……Page 72
3.3 Factory Inspectorate……Page 77
3.4 Robens Report……Page 78
3.5 Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974……Page 79
3.8 Regulatory Regime……Page 80
3.9 Offshore Regime……Page 82
3.10 Specific Legislation……Page 83
3.11 Workplace Legislation……Page 85
3.12 Pressure Systems Legislation……Page 86
3.14 Flammables, Explosives and Fire Legislation……Page 87
3.18 Environment Legislation……Page 89
3.19 Ionizing Radiations Legislation……Page 90
3.22 Transport Legislation……Page 91
3.24 Offshore Legislation……Page 93
3.25 Goal-Setting regulations……Page 94
3.26 Self-Regulation……Page 95
3.28 Industrial Law……Page 96
3.29 EC Directives……Page 97
3.30 US Legislation……Page 99
3.32 US Regulatory Agencies……Page 100
3.35 US Accidental Release Legislation……Page 101
3.37 Engineering ethics……Page 102
4.1 Superstar Technologies……Page 105
4.2 Hazard Monitoring……Page 106
4.4 Risk Perception……Page 107
4.5 Risk Management……Page 111
4.6 Hazard Control Policy……Page 116
4.9 Process Hazard Control: Advisory Committee on Major Hazards……Page 118
4.10 Process Hazard Control: Major Hazards Arrangements……Page 120
4.11 Process Hazard Control: Planning……Page 129
4.12 Process Hazard Control: European Community……Page 134
4.13 Process Hazard Control: USA……Page 135
5.2 Cost of Losses……Page 138
5.3 Cost of Prevention……Page 141
5.4 Level of Loss Prevention Expenditure……Page 142
5.5 Insurance of Process Plant……Page 144
5.6 Damage Insurance……Page 147
5.7 Business Interruption Insurance……Page 153
5.8 Other Insurance Aspects……Page 154
6.1 Management Attitude……Page 158
6.3 Management Organization……Page 160
6.7 Management of Change……Page 161
6.12 Independent Checks……Page 162
6.16 Policy……Page 165
6.17 Organization……Page 166
6.19 Measurement……Page 168
6.22 Process Knowledge……Page 169
6.23 Safety Strategies……Page 170
6.27 Process Safety Management……Page 171
6.28 CCPS Management Guidelines……Page 172
6.29 Regulatory Control……Page 174
6.30 STATAS……Page 175
7.1 Development of Reliability Engineering……Page 182
7.2 Reliability Engineering in the Process Industries……Page 183
7.4 Meanings of Probability……Page 184
7.5 Some Probablility Relationships……Page 185
7.6 Some Reliability Relationships……Page 187
7.7 Failure Distributions……Page 191
7.8 Reliability of Some Standard Systems……Page 196
7.9 Reliability of Complex Systems……Page 199
7.10 Markov Models……Page 203
7.11 Joint Density Functions……Page 206
7.12 Monte Carlo Simulation……Page 207
7.13 Availability……Page 209
7.14 Bayes’ Theorem……Page 216
7.15 Renewal Theory……Page 217
7.17 Models of Failiure: Strength-Load Interaction……Page 219
7.18 Models of Failure: Some Other Models……Page 222
7.19 Failure Behaviour and Regimes……Page 223
7.20 Failure Data Analysis……Page 225
7.21 Reliability in Design……Page 237
7.23 Reliability Growth, Testing and Demonstration……Page 238
7.24 Maintainability……Page 240
7.25 Maintenance Activities and Policies……Page 241
7.26 Reliability-Centred Maintenance……Page 245
7.27 Life Cycle Costing……Page 246
7.28 Notation……Page 247
8 Hazard Identification……Page 250
8.1 Safety Audits……Page 253
8.3 Checklists……Page 260
8.4 Materials Properties……Page 261
8.5 Instabilities of Materials……Page 263
8.6 Explosibility of Materials……Page 274
8.7 Pilot Plants……Page 285
8.8 Hazard Indices……Page 287
8.9 Hazard Studies……Page 303
8.12 Preliminary Hazard Analysis……Page 306
8.14 Hazard and Operability Studies……Page 308
8.15 Failure Modes, Effects and Criticality Analysis……Page 326
8.16 Sneak Analysis……Page 328
8.17 Computer Hazop……Page 329
8.18 Human Error Analysis……Page 331
8.21 Process Safety Review System……Page 332
8.24 Safety Review Systems……Page 340
8.25 Hazard Ranking Methods……Page 342
8.26 Hazard Warning Analysis……Page 346
8.27 Plant Safety Audits……Page 347
8.29 Quality Assurance……Page 348
8.30 Quality Assurance: Completeness……Page 349
8.31 Quality Assurance: QUASA……Page 352
9.2 Hazard Analysis……Page 363
9.3 Risk Assessment……Page 364
9.4 Event Data……Page 368
9.5 Fault Tree……Page 370
9.6 Event Trees……Page 388
9.8 Dependent Failures……Page 391
9.10 Rare Events and External Threats……Page 406
9.11 Human Factors and Human Error……Page 409
9.12 Management Aspects……Page 410
9.14 Domino Effects……Page 412
9.15 Hazard Model Systems……Page 415
9.16 Population Characteristics……Page 417
9.17 Modification of Exposure……Page 427
9.18 Injury Relations……Page 428
9.19 Presentation of Results……Page 433
9.20 Confidence in Results……Page 436
9.21 Risk Criteria……Page 444
9.22 Guide Assessments……Page 454
9.23 Hazard Impact Model……Page 464
9.24 Simplified Assessment Methods……Page 466
9.25 Decay Relations……Page 470
9.26 Hazard Warning……Page 471
9.27 Computer Aids……Page 480
9.28 Risk Assessment Debate……Page 482
9.29 Overview……Page 484
10.7 Plot Layout Considerations……Page 497
10.8 Equipment Layout……Page 499
10.9 Pipework Layout……Page 501
10.16 Effluents……Page 515
10.22 Winterization……Page 530
10.24 Notation……Page 534
11 Process Design……Page 535
11.1 The Design Process……Page 536
11.2 Conceptual Design……Page 544
11.3 Detailed Design……Page 546
11.4 Design Assessments……Page 548
11.5 Licensors, Vendors and Contractors……Page 549
11.7 Inherently Safer Design……Page 550
11.8 Chemical Reactors: General……Page 564
11.9 Batch Reactors……Page 573
11.10 Batch Reactors: Reaction Hazard Evaluation……Page 579
11.11 Batch Reactors: Basic Design……Page 589
11.12 Batch Reactors: Reactor Safety……Page 594
11.13 Batch Reactors: Hazard Assessment……Page 596
11.14 Unit Processes……Page 598
11.15 Unit Operations and Equipments……Page 603
11.16 Operating Conditions……Page 607
11.17 Utilities……Page 609
11.18 Particular Chemicals……Page 616
11.19 Particular Processes and Plants……Page 629
11.20 Operational Deviations……Page 638
11.22 CCPS Engineering Design Guidelines……Page 641
11.23 Notation……Page 642
12 Pressure System Design……Page 644
12.1 Pressure Systems……Page 651
12.3 Steels and their Properties……Page 652
12.4 Pressure Vessel Design……Page 659
12.5 Joining, Fastening and Welding……Page 661
12.6 Pressure Vessel Standards and Codes……Page 662
12.7 Pipework and Valves……Page 666
12.8 Heat Exchangers……Page 677
12.9 Fired Heaters and Furnaces……Page 679
12.10 Process Machinery……Page 681
12.11 Insulation……Page 686
12.12 Overpressure Protection……Page 689
12.14 Overpressure Protection: Relief System Design……Page 695
12.15 Overpressure Protection: Fire Relief……Page 698
12.17 Overpressure Protection: Special Situations……Page 702
12.18 Overpressure Protection: Disposal……Page 703
12.20 Overpressure Protection: Bursting Device……Page 710
12.22 Flare and Vent Systems……Page 712
12.23 Blowdown and Depressuring Systems……Page 716
12.25 Containment of Toxic Materials……Page 717
12.26 Pressure Systems for Chlorine……Page 719
12.27 Failure in Pressure Systems……Page 723
12.28 Fracture Mechanics……Page 731
12.30 Failure of Vessels, Equipment and Machinery……Page 737
13 Control System Design……Page 751
13.1 Process Characteristics……Page 752
13.3 Instrument System Design……Page 754
13.4 Process Computer Control……Page 759
13.5 Control of Batch Processes……Page 763
13.6 Control of Particular Units……Page 765
13.8 Instrument Failure……Page 768
13.9 Trip Systems……Page 776
13.10 Interlock Systems……Page 795
13.12 Programmable Electronic Systems……Page 800
13.13 Software Engineering……Page 808
13.14 Safety-Related Instrument Systems……Page 813
13.15 CCPS Safe Automation Guidelines……Page 815
13.16 Emergency Shut-Down Systems……Page 819
13.17 Level of Automation……Page 821
13.19 Notation……Page 822
14.2 Human Factors in System Design……Page 827
14.3 Themes in Human Factors……Page 828
14.4 Process Operator Functions……Page 830
14.5 Process Operator Studies……Page 831
14.7 Information Display……Page 834
14.8 Alarm Systems……Page 837
14.9 Fault Administration……Page 840
14.10 Malfunction Detection……Page 841
14.11 Computer-Based Aids……Page 843
14.12 Human Information Processing……Page 846
14.13 Task Analysis……Page 852
14.15 Personnel Selection……Page 859
14.16 Training……Page 860
14.17 Training: ACSNI Study Group Report……Page 862
14.19 Human Error……Page 868
14.20 Models and Classifications of Human Errors……Page 870
14.21 Human Error in Process Plants……Page 873
14.23 Assessment of Human Error……Page 878
14.32 Assessment of Human Error: Other Methods……Page 908
14.38 CCPS Human Error Prevention Guidelines……Page 917
14.39 Human Factors at Sizewell B……Page 918
14.40 Notation……Page 919
15.1 Emission……Page 921
15.2 Two-Phase Flow……Page 933
15.3 Two-Phase Flow: Fauske Models……Page 946
15.4 Two-Phase Flow: Leung Models……Page 950
15.5 Vessel Depressurization……Page 954
15.6 Pressure Relief Valves……Page 959
15.7 Vessel Blowdown……Page 963
15.8 Vessel Rupture……Page 964
15.9 Pipleline Rupture……Page 975
15.10 Vaporization……Page 977
15.11 Dispersion……Page 989
15.12 Meterology……Page 996
15.13 Topography……Page 1020
15.14 Dispersion Modelling……Page 1021
15.15 Passive Dispersion……Page 1023
15.16 Passive Dispersion: Models……Page 1025
15.19 Passive Dispersion: Dispersion Parameters……Page 1043
15.21 Dispersion of Two-Phase Flashing Jets……Page 1073
15.22 Dense Gas Dispersion……Page 1078
15.23 Dispersion of Dense Gas: Source Terms……Page 1082
15.26 Dispersion of Dense Gas: Van Ulden Model……Page 1090
15.28 Dispersion of Dense Gas: DENZ and CRUNCH……Page 1097
15.29 Dispersion of Dense Gas: SIGMET……Page 1101
15.30 Dispersion of Dense Gas: SLAB and FEM3……Page 1103
15.32 Dispersion of Dense Gas: DEGADIS……Page 1111
15.34 Dispersion of Dense Gas: Workbook model……Page 1114
15.36 Dispersion of Dense Gas: some other models and reviews……Page 1124
15.37 Dispersion of Dense Gas: Field Trials……Page 1127
15.38 Dispersion of Dense Gas: Thorney Island Trials……Page 1142
15.39 Dispersion of Dense Gas: Physical Modelling……Page 1147
15.42 Dispersion of Dense Gas: Particular Genes……Page 1176
15.43 Dispersion of Dense Gas: Plumes from Elevated Sources……Page 1184
15.44 Dispersion of Dense Gas: Plumes from Elevated Sources – PLUME……Page 1190
15.45 Concentration and Concentration Fluctuations……Page 1195
15.46 Flammable Gas Clouds……Page 1204
15.47 Toxic Gas Clouds……Page 1212
15.48 Dispersion Over Short Distances……Page 1216
15.49 Hazard Ranges for Dispersion……Page 1219
15.50 Transformation and Removal Processes……Page 1221
15.51 Infiltration into Buildings……Page 1228
15.54 Vapour Cloud Mitigation: CCPS Guidelines……Page 1245
15.56 Leaks and Spillages……Page 1251
15.57 Notation……Page 1252