Encyclopedia of Physical Science and Technology – Energy

Robert A. Meyers (Editor-in-Chief)

Written by a galaxy of Nobel Laureates, the latest edition of this world-renowned Encyclopedia offers hundreds of in-depth, accessible articles addressing all of the key areas in physical science research and applications.Nine years has passed since the 1992 second edition of the encyclopedia was published. This completely revised third edition, which is a university and professional level compendium of chemistry, molecular biology, mathematics, and engineering, is refreshed with numerous articles about current research in these fields. For example, the new edition has an increased emphasis on information processing and biotechnology, reflecting the rapid growth of these areas. The continuing Editor-in-Chief, Robert Meyers , and the Board prepared a new topical outline of physical science and technology to define complete coverage. Section editors are either Nobel Laureates or editors of key journals in their fields. Additional Board members representing the global scientific community were also recruited. The new 18-volume edition of the Encyclopedia of Physical Science and Technology, Third Edition , will have the added feature of an Index Volume, containing abstracts of all of the articles in the en cyclopedia.

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Table of contents :
Glossary……Page 1
Coal Characteristics Related to Coal Preparation……Page 2
Breaking, Crushing, and Grinding……Page 3
Grinding……Page 4
Coal Screening……Page 5
Recent Developments……Page 6
Float-and-Sink Analysis……Page 7
Dense-Medium Separation……Page 11
Dense Media……Page 13
Jigs……Page 14
Concentrating Tables……Page 15
Flotation……Page 16
Separation Efficiency……Page 18
Coal Preparation Flowsheets……Page 20
On-Line Analysis……Page 21
Ash Analysis……Page 22
Otisca Process……Page 23
Oil Agglomeration……Page 24
Flotation……Page 25
Chemical Desulfurization……Page 26
References……Page 28
Glossary……Page 29
Geology: Origin and Deposition……Page 30
Coal Classifications……Page 31
Heat of Combustion……Page 32
Pore Structure……Page 33
Extractable Material……Page 35
Nitrogen……Page 36
Sulfur……Page 37
Oxygen……Page 38
Maceral Chemical Structure……Page 39
Structure Models……Page 40
Liquefaction……Page 41
Hydrocarbon Synthesis……Page 42
Coke Formation……Page 43
References……Page 44
Glossary……Page 45
Economic Measures……Page 46
Physical Efficiency Indicators……Page 47
Reference Plant Approach……Page 48
Decomposition Analysis……Page 49
Reaggregation of Energy Efficiency Indicators……Page 50
References……Page 52
Glossary……Page 53
Introduction……Page 54
Paradoxes about Energy and Resource Use……Page 55
Is Energy a Scarce Resource?……Page 56
How do we Evaluate Resource Qauality? The Search for an Integrated Assessment in Biophysical Analyses……Page 57
Describing Matter Flows……Page 58
Accounting for (User-Side) Resource Quality: The Exergy Approach……Page 59
Factors of Scale and System Boundaries……Page 60
Life-Cycle Assessment……Page 62
From Embodied Exergy to Emergy……Page 63
Solar Emergy—Concepts and Definitions……Page 64
Solid Oxide Fuel Cells……Page 65
A Basis for Value……Page 68
Conclusions……Page 70
References……Page 71
Glossary……Page 73
Is a High Level of Energy Consumption Necessary or Desirable for Human Welfare?……Page 74
Fossil-Fuel Resources……Page 75
Fuels for Nuclear Fission Reactors……Page 76
Fuels for Nuclear Fusion Reactors……Page 77
Concluding Observations on Resources for Breeder and Fusion Reactors……Page 78
Solar Energy Input to the Surface of the Earth……Page 79
Oil Reserves……Page 80
Natural Gas Reserves and Methane Hydrate Resources……Page 82
Shale-Oil Reserves……Page 83
Elimination of Long-Lived Radioactive Products……Page 84
Research and Development Agenda for Future Energy Security……Page 85
The Preferred Research and Development Agenda for the Future……Page 86
References……Page 87
Glossary……Page 89
Hydrocarbon Reserves and Potential of Enhanced Recovery……Page 90
Microscopic Displacement Efficiency……Page 91
Macroscopic Displacement Efficiency……Page 92
Capillary Number Correlation……Page 93
Single-Contact Miscible Processes……Page 94
Multiple-Contact Miscible Processes……Page 95
Introduction……Page 97
Micellar–Polymer Processes……Page 98
Alkaline Processes……Page 99
Introduction……Page 100
In Situ Combustion……Page 101
Microbial Processes……Page 102
Screening Criteria……Page 103
References……Page 104
Glossary……Page 105
Carnot Cycle……Page 106
Power Station Technologies……Page 107
Pulverized-Coal Boilers……Page 108
Fuel Considerations……Page 109
Inorganic Matter……Page 110
Coal Energy Content and Flame Temperatures……Page 112
Advanced Analysis Methods……Page 113
Reaction Types……Page 114
Char Oxidation……Page 115
Coal Devolatilization……Page 116
Char Oxidation……Page 117
Ash Formation……Page 118
Pollutant Species……Page 119
Air-Quality and Emissions Regulations……Page 120
NOx Formation and Reduction……Page 121
Greenhouse Gas Emissions……Page 123
Foundations……Page 124
Equations and Solutions……Page 125
Code Evaluation—Field Tests……Page 126
The Future……Page 127
References……Page 128
Glossary……Page 129
Environment of Stability……Page 130
Measuring Gas Hydrate in Wells……Page 132
Sensing Gas Hydrate in Seismic Reflection Profiles……Page 133
Environments of Gas Hydrate Concentration……Page 135
Effect on Seafloor Slides and Slumps……Page 136
Concentration……Page 139
Environmental Concerns……Page 141
References……Page 142
Glossary……Page 143
Solar Heat Stored in Tropical Oceans……Page 144
Open-Cycle OTEC Systems……Page 145
Heat Exchangers……Page 146
Heat Exchanger Designs……Page 147
Working Fluid Requirements……Page 148
Cold Water Pipe (CWP) Design and Construction……Page 149
CWP Support Design……Page 150
Warm and Mixed Effluent Ducting……Page 151
Ammonia……Page 152
Position Control for OTEC Plantships……Page 153
Claude Cycle……Page 154
Uehara Cycle……Page 155
Closed-Cycle OTEC Development Status……Page 156
OTEC-1 Program and Accomplishments……Page 157
OSEA 100-MWe OTEC Power Plant……Page 158
Conceptual Designs of French 5-MWe OTEC Plants at Tahiti……Page 159
Conceptual Design of Taiwan 50-MWe (net) Shore-Based OTEC Plants……Page 160
Baseline 40-MWe (net) Moored and Grazing OTEC Plants……Page 161
Preliminary Design of Shelf-Mounted OTC OTEC Power Plant for Hawaii……Page 162
Conclusions about Closed-Cycle OTEC Development Status……Page 165
Cost Uncertainties and Perceived Risk versus Engineering Status……Page 167
Japanese Floating OTEC Plants……Page 170
Puerto Rico Electric Power Co. (PREPA) Conceptual Design of a 40-MWe (nom) Tower-Mounted OTEC Plant……Page 171
Capital Investments and Sales Prices for OTEC Products……Page 172
OTEC Economics……Page 173
Fuels from oil shale……Page 174
Liquid fuels formed by natural gas reforming……Page 175
Comments……Page 176
Economic Impact of OTEC Commercialization……Page 177
References……Page 180
Glossary……Page 181
Origin of Petroleum……Page 182
The Production and Preservation of Organic Matter……Page 183
Petroleum Migration……Page 184
Porosity and Permeability……Page 185
Terminology and Classification……Page 187
Diapiric Traps……Page 189
Stratigraphic Traps……Page 190
Hydrodynamic and Combination Traps……Page 191
References……Page 192
Glossary……Page 193
Terms, Definition, and Description……Page 196
Use and Potential……Page 198
Herbaceous Energy Crops……Page 200
Pyrolytic decomposition…….Page 201
Gasification…….Page 202
Direct Combustion……Page 203
Household Cookstove……Page 204
Oven for Wood Chips……Page 206
Cigar Burner……Page 207
Coalification……Page 208
Gasification……Page 209
Fixed-bed gasifier…….Page 210
Gas Utilization……Page 211
Oil Production……Page 212
Use……Page 213
Substrate Production……Page 214
Basics……Page 215
Biogas Production……Page 216
Use……Page 217
References……Page 218
Glossary……Page 219
Solar Collectors……Page 220
Hot Water Systems……Page 222
Space Heating……Page 224
Passive Systems……Page 226
Solar Cooling……Page 228
User Influence……Page 230
Urban Problems……Page 231
Recent Developments……Page 232
References……Page 233
Glossary……Page 235
Historical Background……Page 236
Thermionic Emission……Page 237
Basic Principles of Thermionic Conversion……Page 238
Operating Modes……Page 239
Barrier Index……Page 240
Rasor Plot……Page 241
Vacuum-Mode Diodes……Page 242
Additive Diodes……Page 243
Radioisotope Generators……Page 244
Combustion Converters……Page 245
References……Page 246
Glossary……Page 247
Exergy Components……Page 248
Control Volume Exergy Balance……Page 250
Exergy Destruction……Page 251
Estimation of Total Capital Investment……Page 252
Levelized Costs……Page 255
Exergy Costing……Page 256
Auxiliary Costing Equations……Page 257
Thermoeconomic Evaluation……Page 261
Thermoeconomic Variables……Page 262
Design Evaluation……Page 263
Evaluation of the First Design Case Base-Case Design)……Page 264
Evaluation of the Second Design Case (1. Iteration)……Page 266
Recent Developments in Thermoeconomics……Page 267
References……Page 268
Glossary……Page 269
Introductory Remarks on Wte Plants……Page 270
Initial Growth Rates for Mwi Use in the United States……Page 271
The 1999 Integrated Waste Services Association Wte Directory of U.S. Plants……Page 272
Potential Electricity Production from Wte Systems in the United States……Page 273
Representative Mwi Systems……Page 274
References……Page 276