Encyclopedia of Physical Science and Technology

Meyers R.A. (ed.)

Nine years has passed since the 1992 second edition of the encyclopedia was published. This completely revised third edition, which is a university and professional level compendium of chemistry, molecular biology, mathematics, and engineering, is refreshed with numerous articles about current research in these fields. For example, the new edition has an increased emphasis on information processing and biotechnology, reflecting the rapid growth of these areas. The continuing Editor-in-Chief, Robert Meyers, and the Board prepared a new topical outline of physical science and technology to define complete coverage. Section editors are either Nobel Laureates or editors of key journals in their fields. Additional Board members representing the global scientific community were also recruited.

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Table of contents :
Artificial Intelligence9.pdf……Page 0
Glossary……Page 1
Kindergarten……Page 2
Acquiring Valuable Work Skills……Page 3
Knowledge Representation……Page 4
Semantic Networks and Conceptual Graphs……Page 5
Searching……Page 6
Blind Search……Page 7
Informed Search……Page 8
Logic……Page 9
Reasoning with Uncertainty……Page 10
Learning……Page 11
Artificial Neural Networks……Page 12
Intelligent Agents……Page 13
Rule-Based Expert Systems……Page 14
Natural Language Understanding……Page 15
Speech Recognition……Page 16
Robotics……Page 17
Planning and Scheduling……Page 18
Consciousness in Artificial Systems……Page 19
Outlook……Page 20
References……Page 21
Glossary……Page 22
Biological Basis of Artificial Neural Networks……Page 23
History and Resurgence of Artificial Neural Networks……Page 24
Need for Guidelines……Page 25
Input Variable Selection……Page 26
Learning Method Selection……Page 27
Supervised Learning……Page 28
Number of Hidden Layers……Page 29
Number of Nodes per Hidden Layer……Page 30
Training Samples Selection……Page 31
Conclusions……Page 34
References……Page 35
Glossary……Page 37
Overview……Page 38
Cognitive Processes……Page 39
Perception……Page 40
Memory……Page 42
Thinking……Page 44
Linguistics……Page 45
Neurology……Page 46
Artificial Intelligence……Page 47
Anthropology……Page 48
Modularity……Page 49
Species Specificity……Page 50
References……Page 51
Glossary……Page 52
What is a Cellular Automaton?……Page 53
Two-Dimensional Cellular Automaton of Greenberg and Hastings……Page 54
Invertibility of Global Maps Defined by Cellular Automata……Page 55
Expansiveness and Permutivity……Page 56
Cellular Automata as Computers and Decidability Questions……Page 57
Properties of Additive Cellular Automata……Page 58
Additive Cellular Automata and Finite Automata……Page 59
Hydrodynamic Flows……Page 61
Pattern Formation……Page 62
References……Page 63
Glossary……Page 65
Introduction……Page 66
Calculus of Fuzzy Logic……Page 67
Fuzzy Dynamic Systems……Page 68
Fuzzy Numbers……Page 69
Truth Qualification Rule……Page 70
Linguistics and Fuzzy Modeling and Control……Page 71
Fuzzy Model of a dc Motor……Page 72
Fuzzy Controller of a dc Motor……Page 74
References……Page 76
An Interdisciplinary Discipline……Page 78
People……Page 79
Evaluation……Page 80
User Interfaces……Page 81
Input and Output……Page 82
UIMS and GUI tools……Page 83
Delivery to Industry……Page 84
References……Page 85
Extensive and Normal Forms……Page 86
Two-Person Zero-Sum Games……Page 87
Games on the Square……Page 88
Applications to Biology……Page 89
Cooperative Games……Page 90
The Power Indices……Page 91
The Basic Model……Page 92
References……Page 93
Glossary……Page 94
Properties of Entropy……Page 95
Mutual Information……Page 96
Properties and Interpretation……Page 97
Source Coding……Page 98
Worst-Case Code Length……Page 99
Huffman Codes……Page 100
Encoding and Decoding……Page 101
Rate Distortion……Page 102
Applications……Page 103
Channel Coding……Page 104
Encoding and Decoding……Page 105
Continuous Channels……Page 106
Codes……Page 107
Examples……Page 108
Parity Check Codes……Page 109
Turbo and Low-Density-Parity-Check Codes……Page 110
See also the Following Articles……Page 111
References……Page 112
Glossary……Page 113
Conventional Control……Page 115
Issues of Dissatisfaction with Conventional Control Theory……Page 116
Many Ways in Which the Control Problem May Be Attacked……Page 117
Complexity of a System to Be Controlled……Page 118
Exosystem and Multiactuation as Parts of the Overall Problem……Page 119
Intelligent Controller: An Intuitive Approach……Page 120
Blend of the Disciplines: Control Theory, Artificial Intelligence, and Operation Research……Page 121
The Structure and Subjects of Intelligent Control Theory……Page 122
Cultivating Redundancy is a Prerequisite for Intelligent Control……Page 123
The Entity-Relational Network Is a Form of Constructing the Representation at the Level of the Intelligent Controller……Page 124
Constructing Multiresolutional Representation Is a Tool of Intelligent Control……Page 125
Ill-Posedness of Real Problems……Page 126
Nested Models of Information Acquisition, Estimation, Identification, Representation, and Control……Page 127
Negotiation of Cost Function among the Loops……Page 128
Joint Planning/Control Process……Page 129
Perception Stratified by Resolution……Page 130
What Is Intelligent Control?……Page 131
Resolution……Page 132
Generalization……Page 133
Autonomy……Page 135
References……Page 136