Encyclopedia of Physical Science and Technology – Lasers and Masers

Robert A. Meyers (Editor-in-Chief)

Nine years has passed since the 1992 second edition of the encyclopedia was published. This completely revised third edition, which is a university and professional level compendium of chemistry, molecular biology, mathematics, and engineering, is refreshed with numerous articles about current research in these fields. For example, the new edition has an increased emphasis on information processing and biotechnology, reflecting the rapid growth of these areas. The continuing Editor-in-Chief, Robert Meyers, and the Board prepared a new topical outline of physical science and technology to define complete coverage. Section editors are either Nobel Laureates or editors of key journals in their fields. Additional Board members representing the global scientific community were also recruited.

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Table of contents :
Absorption……Page 1
Perfect metals…….Page 2
Lorentz and Drude Models……Page 3
Nonlinear Absorption……Page 4
Laser-Driven Plasma Coupling and Decoupling……Page 5
Analysis of Laser–Plasma Interaction……Page 7
Surface Electromagnetic Waves……Page 8
Photoablation……Page 9
Thermal Diffusion Problem and Thermal Diffusivity……Page 10
Uniformly Illuminated Surface……Page 11
Uniformly Illuminated Circle of Radius A……Page 12
Gaussian Beam Illumination……Page 13
Non-Gaussian Beam Illumination……Page 14
Comparison of Results……Page 15
Time Required to Achieve Melting or Vaporization……Page 16
Responses of Materials……Page 17
References……Page 19
Glossary……Page 20
Laser History……Page 21
Excitation Mechanisms in Lasers (Energy Sources)……Page 22
Inversions in Solids……Page 23
Stable and Unstable Resonators……Page 24
Transverse Modes……Page 25
Linewidth in Laser Amplifiers……Page 26
Line Narrowing Due to Cavity Effects……Page 27
Visible Lasers……Page 28
Argon and Krypton Ion Lasers……Page 29
Helium–Cadmium Laser……Page 30
Ruby Laser……Page 31
Free-Electron Lasers……Page 32
Brightness Properties……Page 33
References……Page 34
Laser Fundamentals……Page 35
Chemistry……Page 36
Hardware……Page 38
High-Power Devices……Page 41
Chemistry……Page 42
Hardware……Page 44
High-Power Devices……Page 46
References……Page 47
Introduction To Color Center Lasers……Page 48
Optical Emission Processes……Page 49
F-Centers……Page 50
FA(II) Centers and FB(II) Centers……Page 51
F2+ Centers……Page 52
(F2+ )A Centers……Page 54
The F2+: O2- Center……Page 55
Summary of Laser Performance……Page 56
Additive Coloration……Page 57
Stimulated Emission Cross-Section……Page 58
Color Center Laser Cavity……Page 59
Broadband Tuning Techniques……Page 60
Standing Wave Linear Laser……Page 61
Mode-Locked Operation……Page 62
References……Page 63
Glossary……Page 65
Dye Laser Types……Page 67
Historical Overview……Page 68
Conjugated Double Bonds as Chromophores……Page 71
Dye Absorption and Fluorescence Spectra Derived from Potential-Energy Curves……Page 73
Spectral Condensation, Gain Saturation, and Laser Output Power……Page 75
Short-Pulse Oscillators……Page 79
Excimer Laser-Pumped Dye Lasers and Oscillator/Amplifier Configurations……Page 82
Short-Pulse Dye Laser Tuning Spectrum……Page 83
Dye Cells, Dye Jets, and Focusing Cavities……Page 84
Spatial Hole Burning and Ring Cavities……Page 86
Tunable Filter Stacks for Single-Frequency Lasers……Page 88
The Narrowest Linewidths—Frequency Stabilization Servomechanisms……Page 90
Single-Frequency Dye Laser Output Tuning Spectrum……Page 94
Gains and Saturation Intensities for Common Dyes……Page 97
Ultrashort-Pulse (Mode-Locked) Dye Lasers……Page 99
Pulse Formation by Phase-Locking of Cavity Modes……Page 100
Pulse-Shaping by Saturable Gain and Absorption……Page 101
Pulse-Shape Dependence on Cavity Length in Synchronous Mode-Locking……Page 103
The Shortest Pulses—Colliding-Pulse Ring Lasers and Pulse Compression……Page 104
Specialized Dye Lasers……Page 105
Recent Developments……Page 106
Ultrashort-Pulse Lasers……Page 107
Solid-State Dye Lasers……Page 108
References……Page 109
History……Page 110
Spectroscopic Features of Excimer Lasers……Page 111
Discharge-Pumped XeCl Lasers……Page 112
Excimer Laser Technology……Page 114
Electron-Beam Pumping……Page 115
Discharge Pumping……Page 117
Charge transfer circuit…….Page 118
Spiker sustainer circuit…….Page 119
Preionization Technology……Page 120
High-Repetition-Rate Operation……Page 121
Injection Locking……Page 122
Excimer Laser Lithography……Page 123
Molecular Fluorine Excimer Laser……Page 124
References……Page 125
Glossary……Page 126
Introduction……Page 128
General Principles……Page 130
Experiments and Applications……Page 138
Summary and Discussion……Page 145
References……Page 147
Nuclear Device-Pumped Lasers……Page 148
Reactor Pumped Lasers……Page 149
Pumping Mechanisms……Page 150
Potential Advantages as Large Lasers……Page 151
Reactor Characteristics……Page 152
Laser Medium Aspects……Page 153
Technological Progress……Page 154
Radiation Effects on Optics……Page 155
References……Page 156
Glossary……Page 157
Fiber Laser Fundamentals……Page 158
Lasing wavelengths…….Page 159
Saturation power…….Page 160
Optical Fibers……Page 161
Nonlinear Properties of Optical Fiber Waveguides……Page 162
Fiber Splices and Connectors……Page 163
Fiber-Coupled Components……Page 164
Nonlinear Mirrors and Switches……Page 165
Short Cavity CW Lasers……Page 166
Tuning Techniques for CW Fiber Lasers……Page 167
Upconversion Fiber Lasers……Page 168
Multiwavelength CW Lasers……Page 169
Mode Locked Fiber Lasers……Page 170
Passive Mode Locking……Page 171
Noise and Jitter in Mode Locked Fiber Lasers……Page 173
Pulse compression…….Page 174
Mode Locked Pulse Generation……Page 175
Superfluorescent Sources……Page 176
Optical Fiber Telecommunications……Page 177
Future Developments……Page 178
References……Page 179
Glossary……Page 180
Brief Historical Overview……Page 181
The Energy Band Theory of Crystals and the Origin of the Band Gap……Page 182
Energy States and the Density of States……Page 183
Quantum Well Physics……Page 185
Quantum Wires and Quantum Dots……Page 187
Basic Principles……Page 188
Optical and Electronic Confinement: Transverse Confinement……Page 189
VPE and MOCVD……Page 190
Laser Structures……Page 192
Gain-Guided and Index-Guided Laser Structures: Lateral Confinement……Page 193
High-Power Semiconductor Lasers……Page 194
High-Modulation-Frequency Lasers……Page 195
Narrow-Linewidth Lasers……Page 197
Quantum Well Lasers……Page 198
Vertical Cavity Lasers……Page 200
Quantum Cascade Lasers……Page 201
Semiconductor Optical Amplifiers……Page 202
Buried-facet amplifier design…….Page 204
Modelocked Semiconductor Laser……Page 205
Diode-Pumped Solid State Lasers……Page 207
Optical Communications……Page 208
Directions and Trends……Page 211
References……Page 212
Introduction……Page 213
Pumping Modes and Experimental Results……Page 215
Characteristics of Plasma X-Ray Lasers……Page 218
Alternative (to Plasmas) and Complimentary Approaches……Page 219
Applications……Page 221
Summary and Prognosis……Page 222
References……Page 223
Glossary……Page 224
Ions in Crystals and Glasses……Page 225
Glasses……Page 226
Crystals……Page 227
Nd3+-Lasers……Page 228
Yb3+ -Lasers……Page 229
Other Transition Metal Ion Lasers……Page 230
Examples of Sensitized Laser Materials……Page 232
Practical Laser Materials……Page 233
Solid-State Laser Architectures……Page 234
Flash Lamp Pumping……Page 235
Diode Pumping……Page 236
Pockels Cell……Page 237
Acousto-Optic Switch……Page 238
Free Running……Page 239
Cavity Dumping……Page 240
Watt and Joule Level Laser……Page 241
Material Working Lasers……Page 242
Laser Scaling……Page 243
Future Directions……Page 244
References……Page 245