Richard C. Selley, Robin Cocks, Ian Plimer9780126363807, 0126363803, 0126363811, 012636382X, 0126363838
Table of contents :
Cover……Page 1
Copyright……Page 5
Editors……Page 6
Editorial Advisory Board……Page 7
Foreword……Page 10
Introduction……Page 12
Guide to Use of the Encyclopedia……Page 14
Contributors……Page 18
Volume 1……Page 28
Volume 2……Page 30
Volume 3……Page 31
Volume 4……Page 34
Volume 5……Page 36
Introduction……Page 40
Arabian-Nubian Shield (ANS)……Page 41
Mozambique Belt (MB)……Page 43
Damara Belt……Page 46
Gariep and Saldania Belts……Page 47
Trans-Saharan Belt……Page 48
Rokelide Belt……Page 49
Gondwana Correlations……Page 50
Introduction……Page 51
Post-Infracambrian – Pre-Hercynian……Page 52
Hercynian Orogeny……Page 53
Permo–Triassic……Page 60
Cretaceous……Page 62
Neogene and Quaternary……Page 63
Further Reading……Page 64
Plate Tectonic Setting……Page 65
Topography and Structure……Page 66
Doming and Volcanicity……Page 67
Hydrology and Climate……Page 68
Sedimentation and Basin Fills……Page 69
Topography and Structure……Page 70
Rivers and Hydrology……Page 71
Earthquakes, Archaeology, and Sodom and Gomorrah……Page 72
Introduction……Page 73
Extraction of Aggregates……Page 74
Aggregate Grading……Page 75
Petrography……Page 77
Aggregate Impact Value (BS 812)……Page 78
Freeze–Thaw Test……Page 79
Aggregates for Use in Bituminous Construction Materials……Page 80
See Also……Page 81
Introduction……Page 82
Fission Tracks……Page 83
Fission Track Annealing……Page 84
Fission Track Ages……Page 86
Fission Track Length……Page 87
Thermal History Modelling……Page 88
(U-Th)/He Dating……Page 89
Applications of Fission Track Analysis and (U-Th)/He Dating……Page 91
Further Reading……Page 92
Producing Geochemical Data……Page 93
The Range of Geochemical Analytical Techniques……Page 94
Analysis of X-rays: Electron-Shell Emission……Page 96
X-ray Fluorescence……Page 99
X-ray Diffraction……Page 100
Optical Techniques……Page 102
Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectroscopy……Page 103
Infrared Spectroscopy……Page 105
Chromatography……Page 106
Ion Chromatography……Page 108
Thermal-Ionization Isotope-Ratio Mass Spectroscopy……Page 110
Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectroscopy……Page 111
Pyrolysis……Page 112
Fluid Inclusion Microthermometry……Page 114
Further Reading……Page 115
Introduction……Page 116
Absolute Ages……Page 117
Chemostratigraphy……Page 123
Radiogenic Isotope Techniques……Page 126
Astronomically Calibrated Time-Scales……Page 129
Further Reading……Page 130
The Earth’s Shape and its Gravity Field……Page 131
Measurement of Gravity……Page 132
Gravity Anomalies and Derivatives……Page 134
Submarine Topography……Page 136
Isostasy and Lithospheric Strength……Page 137
Density Contrasts, Analytical Models, and Non-Uniqueness……Page 138
Modelling in Conjunction with Other Data……Page 140
Modelling Over Sedimentary Basins……Page 142
Smaller Scale Surveys……Page 143
Gravity Gradiometry……Page 144
Further Reading……Page 145
Mineral Analysis……Page 146
Sample Preparation……Page 147
Characteristic X-Ray Generation……Page 148
X-Ray Spectrometry……Page 149
Matrix Corrections……Page 151
Proton Induced X-Ray Emission……Page 152
Laser Ablation……Page 153
The Ion Microprobe……Page 154
Other Mineral Analysis Methods……Page 155
Introduction……Page 157
Subducting Oceanic Crust and Distribution and Character of Andean Magmatism……Page 158
Character of the Ranges, Basins and Faults of the Northern, Central and Southern Andes……Page 159
Stage 1: Rifting and Extensional Arc Systems……Page 167
Stage 2: Basin Inversion and Formation of the Early Andes……Page 168
Stage 3: Formation of the Modern Andes ( 27–0 Ma)……Page 169
Further Reading……Page 170
The East Antarctic Shield……Page 171
Gondwana Cover Sequences: A Stable Continent……Page 174
Ellsworth Whitmore Mountains: A Displaced Fragment of the Gondwanian Fold Belt……Page 175
The Antarctic Peninsula: Long-Lived Andean-Type Margin……Page 176
Gondwana Breakup: The Isolation of Antarctica……Page 177
Antarctic Climate History: The Past 100 Million Years……Page 178
Introduction……Page 179
Infracambrian and Lower Palaeozoic Clastic Rocks (Cambrian through Lower Devonian)……Page 180
Carboniferous, Permian, and Triassic Carbonate/ Clastic Rocks (Upper Permian through Upper Triassic)……Page 184
Upper Jurassic and Early Lower Cretaceous Carbonate Rocks (Callovian through Valanginian)……Page 185
Upper Cretaceous to Eocene Carbonate Rocks (Campanian through Lutetian)……Page 186
The Structural Geology of Arabia and the Gulf……Page 187
Further Reading……Page 191
Central Segment……Page 192
Southern Segment……Page 195
Volcanic Rocks……Page 196
Fold-and-Thrust Belts and Their Synorogenic Deposits……Page 197
Basinal Areas……Page 198
Cuyania……Page 200
Further Reading……Page 202
Kazakstan……Page 203
Turkmenistan……Page 205
Kyrgyzstan……Page 206
Geologic History……Page 207
Introduction……Page 208
Origins of the South-East Asian Terranes……Page 210
Devonian Rifting and Separation……Page 213
Late Triassic to Late Jurassic Rifting and Separation……Page 214
Amalgamation and Accretion of Terranes……Page 215
Phanerozoic (545–0 Ma)……Page 216
Oil and Gas……Page 226
Minerals……Page 229
ASTEROIDS……Page 235
Solar System and Planetary Formation: Relevance to Atmospheric Evolution……Page 236
Formation of the Earth: Primary Atmosphere……Page 237
Abatement and Cooling……Page 238
Origin of the Secondary Atmosphere……Page 239
Early Anoxic Atmospheres……Page 240
Metabolic Energy and the Rise of Oxygen……Page 241
Phanerozoic Atmospheric Changes……Page 243
Carbon Dioxide and Climate Changes……Page 245
Further Reading……Page 246
West Australian Craton……Page 247
North Australian Craton……Page 250
South Australian Craton……Page 254
Mesoproterozoic – The Assembly of Rodinia (1600–1000 Ma)……Page 257
Neoproterozoic-Proterozoic Australia in Rodinia (1000–545 Ma)……Page 259
Further Reading……Page 260
Introduction……Page 261
Latest Neoproterozoic–Earliest Cambrian (550–530 Ma)……Page 264
Early–Middle Cambrian 530–510 Ma……Page 265
Early Ordovician (490–458 Ma)……Page 266
Early Silurian (443–425 Ma)……Page 268
Middle and Late Devonian (394–362 Ma)……Page 269
Late Permian (258–250 Ma)……Page 273
Neocomian to Aptian (140.5–115 Ma)……Page 274
Present Tectonics and Morphology……Page 275
Introduction……Page 276
Tasman Orogen Make-up……Page 278
Lachlan Orogen……Page 279
Metamorphism……Page 281
Eastern Australian Plate Tectonic Evolution in the Gondwanan Context……Page 283
Basin Inversion along the Gondwanan Margin (520–500 Ma): Ross–Delamerian Orogeny……Page 284
Back-arc Basin Formation (520–500 Ma): Evolution of the Lachlan Orogen……Page 286
Back-arc Basin Closure (450–420 Ma): Evolution of the Lachlan Orogen……Page 288
See Also……Page 289
Further Reading……Page 290
The Angel with the Flaming Sword (Genesis 3:24)……Page 292
The Flood: Genesis 6–9……Page 293
The Exodus……Page 294
References to Earth Movements……Page 295
The Scientific Revolution Beginning in the Sixteenth Century, and Christian Responses Thereto……Page 296
Further Reading……Page 297
Types of Biodiversity……Page 298
Ancient Biodiversity……Page 299
Precambrian Biodiversity……Page 300
Phanerozoic Diversity Change……Page 301
Understanding Biodiversity Curves……Page 303
Further Reading……Page 304
Species, Species Recognition and Speciation in the Fossil Record……Page 305
Speciation in the Fossil Record……Page 306
Radiations……Page 308
Environmental Shift……Page 310
Abiotic Causes – Fragmentation of Areas……Page 312
Origination of an Evolutionary Novelty Leading to Taxic Diversity……Page 313
Morphological and Taxic Evolution During Radiations……Page 315
Introduction……Page 318
BIOSEDIMENTS AND BIOFILMS……Page 320
Microbial Sediments: Significance and Distribution……Page 321
Nature of Mats and Biofilms……Page 322
Effects of Microbial Activity upon Sedimentation……Page 323
Stromatolites……Page 324
Microfossils……Page 327
Biomarkers……Page 331
Chemical Fossils……Page 332
Introduction……Page 333
Range Zones……Page 335
Assemblage Zone……Page 340
Acme Zone……Page 341
Biozones and Biochronozones……Page 343
Further Reading……Page 344
Brazil in the Geological Scenario of South America……Page 345
Cratons……Page 348
Sa o Francisco Craton……Page 349
Amazon Craton……Page 350
Sa o Luis and Rio de la Plata Cratons……Page 351
Neoproterozoic Orogenic Domains……Page 353
Mantiqueira Orogenic System……Page 354
BRAZIL……Page 356
Tocantins Orogenic System……Page 358
BRAZIL……Page 361
Borborema Strike-Slip System and Associated Features……Page 362
Palaeozoic Sag Basins……Page 363
Continental-Margin Basins and Associated Interior Rifts……Page 364
Tertiary Rifts and Related Features……Page 366
Historic Use of Building Stone……Page 367
Geological Controls on Nature of Building Stone……Page 369
Further Reading……Page 372
Short-Term Carbon Cycle……Page 374
The Long-Term Carbon Cycle……Page 377
Geological Evolution of the Global Carbon Cycle……Page 379
Glacial–Interglacial Cycles……Page 380
Anthropogenically Induced CO2 Increase and Future Predictions……Page 382
Introduction……Page 384
The Main Tectonic Units and Crustal Evolution of China……Page 385
China in the Pre-Jinningian and Jinningian (Archaean to Qingbaikouan)……Page 387
China in the Post-Jinningian to the Indosinian (Nanhuan to Triassic)……Page 390
China in Post-Indosinian Times……Page 392
Mongolia in the Neoarchaean to the Early Neoproterozoic……Page 393
Mongolia in the Late Neoproterozoic to the Triassic……Page 394
Conclusions……Page 395
Further Reading……Page 396
Introduction……Page 397
Classification……Page 398
Clays (Talc and Pyrophyllite) (2:1)……Page 399
Clays (Mica and Illite) (2:1)……Page 400
Clay Formation Through Weathering and Neoformation in Soils……Page 401
Clay Stratigraphy……Page 403
Further Reading……Page 404
Definitions……Page 405
Building Material……Page 406
Physicochemical Properties of Clay Minerals……Page 407
See Also……Page 408
The Imperial Institute……Page 409
Directorate of Colonial Geological Surveys……Page 410
Introduction……Page 412
Packaging Materials……Page 413
Environmental Monitoring……Page 414
Mould……Page 415
Surface Cleaning: Mechanical……Page 416
Surface Cleaning: Chemical……Page 417
Consolidants, Adhesives, and Gap Fillers……Page 418
Subfossil Bone……Page 419
Definitions……Page 420
Static versus Dynamic Views of the Earth……Page 421
Young Earth Creationism and Flood Geology……Page 422
Creation Science and Geology……Page 424
Further Reading……Page 425
Introduction……Page 426
Dendroclimatology……Page 427
Stable Isotope Studies……Page 429
Conclusions……Page 430
Further Reading……Page 431
Physical Diagenesis……Page 432
Summary……Page 433
DINOSAURS……Page 434
Peridotites and Oceanic Basalts……Page 436
Meteoritic Analogy……Page 437
Mantle Composition……Page 438
Conclusion……Page 441
Introduction……Page 442
Physical Regions of the Crust……Page 443
Crustal Structure……Page 444
Oceanic Crust……Page 445
The Crust and Isostasy……Page 446
Crustal Deformation……Page 447
Further Reading……Page 448
Celestial Mechanics……Page 449
General Precession of Earth……Page 450
Eccentricity……Page 451
Climatic Precession……Page 453
Insolation……Page 454
Amplitude Modulation Patterns: The ‘Fingerprint’ of Orbital Cycles……Page 455
Chaos in the Solar System……Page 456
Further Reading……Page 459
Introduction……Page 460
Earth Tides……Page 461
Magnetic Field……Page 462
Plate Tectonic Movement and Mantle Convection……Page 463
Geochronological Comparisons – Earth and Other Solar System Bodies……Page 465
The Origin of the Earth……Page 466
Further Reading……Page 468
The Genesis of Earth System Science……Page 469
Some Definitions Defined……Page 470
Impact of Earth System Science on Geology……Page 471
Introduction……Page 473
Economic Attributes of Economic Deposits……Page 475
Metallic Mineral Deposits……Page 476
World Distribution of Economic Mineral Deposits……Page 477
The State of Relevant Geological Knowledge……Page 478
Discovery of New Deposits……Page 479
Feasibility Studies and Mine Development……Page 480
Mineral Extraction……Page 481
See Also……Page 482
Overview……Page 483
Development……Page 484
Social Context……Page 485
Further Reading……Page 486
What is the Role of Engineering Geology?……Page 487
What are Codes in Engineering Geology?……Page 488
Particular Problem Areas in Combining National Codes……Page 489
Core Indices……Page 490
Professional Qualifications……Page 491
Concluding Remarks……Page 493
Further Reading……Page 494
Introduction……Page 502
Introduction……Page 495
Avoiding Damage-Prone Areas……Page 496
Predicting Collateral Damage……Page 497
Engineering Geological Mapping……Page 498
Post-Event Surveys……Page 499
Summary……Page 501
The Type of Data to be Recorded……Page 506
Map Scale……Page 507
Data Collection……Page 508
Map Presentation……Page 511
Further Reading……Page 512
A Framework for Evaluating Change: Physical Systems……Page 513
Investigation Methods……Page 514
Historical Records and Maps……Page 515
Terrain Evaluation……Page 517
Geomorphological Mapping……Page 518
Further Reading……Page 520
Methods……Page 521
Survey Design……Page 523
Transport Infrastructure……Page 526
Foundation Design……Page 528
Pipeline Investigations……Page 529
Hazard Identification……Page 532
Containment Structures……Page 535
Buried Assets……Page 536
Earthquake Hazards and Seismic Risk……Page 538
Measuring Earthquake Ground Motion……Page 540
Characterizing Strong Ground Motion……Page 543
Prediction of Earthquake Ground Motion……Page 545
Seismic Hazard Assessment……Page 549
Introduction……Page 554
Types of Natural Geohazard……Page 555
Types of Anthropogenic Geohazard……Page 557
Hazard and Risk Mapping……Page 558
Engineering and Geohazards……Page 561
Further Reading……Page 563
The Principles of Liquefaction……Page 564
Liquefaction Susceptibility……Page 566
Evaluation of Liquefaction Potential……Page 567
Permanent Ground Deformation……Page 568
Consequences of EarthquakeInduced Liquefaction……Page 571
Mitigation……Page 572
Further Reading……Page 573
History……Page 574
Twentieth Century……Page 575
Functions of Made Ground……Page 577
Fill Placement……Page 578
Fill Properties and Behaviour……Page 579
Future Trends……Page 580
Further Reading……Page 581
The Influence of Weathering on Engineering Behaviour……Page 582
Igneous and Metamorphic Rocks……Page 583
Sandstones……Page 586
Mudrocks……Page 587
Carbonate Rocks……Page 588
Evaporite Rocks……Page 591
Organic Rocks: Coal……Page 592
Introduction……Page 593
Collapsible Soils……Page 594
Expansive Clays……Page 596
Dispersive Soils……Page 597
Humid Tropical Zone Soils……Page 599
Soils of Hot Arid Regions……Page 600
Soils Developed in Cold Regions……Page 601
Peat Soils……Page 603
Further Reading……Page 604
Density and Porosity……Page 605
Hardness……Page 606
Deformation of Rocks……Page 608
Elastic Properties……Page 610
Uniaxial Compression……Page 611
Tensile Strength……Page 612
Durability of Rocks……Page 614
Permeability……Page 618
Introduction and Terminology……Page 619
The Desk Study……Page 620
How Many? How Deep?……Page 624
Trial Pitting……Page 625
Boring Techniques – Soft Ground……Page 626
Dynamic and Static Probing……Page 627
Groundwater and Instrumentation……Page 629
Laboratory Testing……Page 630
Reporting……Page 631
Further Reading……Page 633
Encyclopedia of Geology – Vol. 2……Page 634
Typical Site Characterization……Page 636
Pitfalls of Site Characterization……Page 637
Conclusion……Page 638
Further Reading……Page 643
Mining……Page 644
Karst……Page 645
Oil and Gas Extraction……Page 646
Flowing Water……Page 647
Further Reading……Page 648
Free Carbon Dioxide [CO2] Determination……Page 649
Thermal Surveys……Page 650
General Principles……Page 651
Passive In Situ Sampling……Page 652
Further Reading……Page 655
Trace Element Bioavailability and Speciation……Page 656
Trace Element Bioavailability and Speciation……Page 657
Environmental Restoration……Page 659
Scope of Environmental Geology……Page 661
Environmental Impacts of Mineral Extraction……Page 662
Soil Resources……Page 664
Geomaterials……Page 665
Sanitary Landfill……Page 666
Geology of Natural Hazards……Page 667
Further Reading……Page 668
EROSION……Page 669
Margins and Borders……Page 670
Morphology, Topography, and Sedimentary Cover……Page 672
Fennoscandia……Page 674
East European Craton……Page 678
Sarmatia……Page 681
Volgo-Uralia……Page 682
Assembly of the East European Craton……Page 683
See Also……Page 684
Introduction……Page 685
Basement of the Pechora Basin……Page 687
Polar Urals……Page 688
Timanide Tectonic Evolution……Page 689
Further Reading……Page 691
Palaeogeographical and Tectonic Framework……Page 692
Grampian Terrane……Page 695
Welsh Basin Terrane……Page 696
Mid-Ordovician–Silurian: Collision of Eastern Avalonia, Baltica, and Laurentia……Page 697
Early to mid-Devonian: the Final Caledonian (Acadian) Collision – Closure of the Rheic Ocean?……Page 698
Further Reading……Page 699
Western Scandinavia……Page 700
Baltoscandian Platform to Outer Margin (Lower and Middle Allochthons)……Page 702
Laurentian Continental Margin (Uppermost Allochthon)……Page 703
Eastern Greenland……Page 704
Svalbard……Page 706
Tectonic Evolution of the Northern Caledonides……Page 709
Further Reading……Page 710
Palaeomagnetic and Biogeographical Record……Page 711
Variscan Orogeny……Page 712
Siluro-Devonian……Page 714
Geological Record: Central Europe……Page 715
Geological Record: Western Europe……Page 716
Variscan Orogeny……Page 717
Features Characteristic of the Variscan Belt……Page 720
Further Reading……Page 721
Tectonic Evolution……Page 722
The Urals……Page 723
Arc–Continent Collision……Page 724
Subcontinental Subduction……Page 725
Crustal Structure……Page 726
The Urals……Page 729
Further Reading……Page 730
General Characteristics……Page 731
Basin Formation……Page 732
Foreland……Page 733
Variscan Internides……Page 734
Petrogenesis……Page 735
Geodynamic Setting and Driving Forces for Extension……Page 736
Further Reading……Page 737
Background: Late Hercynian Wrench Tectonics and Magmatism……Page 738
Permian to Recent Evolution……Page 739
Triassic……Page 741
Permian to Recent Evolution……Page 742
Permian to Recent Evolution……Page 743
Jurassic……Page 744
Permian to Recent Evolution……Page 745
Permian to Recent Evolution……Page 746
Permian to Recent Evolution……Page 747
Permian to Recent Evolution……Page 748
Late Cretaceous–Paleocene Rifting and Early Alpine Intraplate Compression……Page 749
Permian to Recent Evolution……Page 750
Permian to Recent Evolution……Page 751
Permian to Recent Evolution……Page 752
Opening of the Arctic–North Atlantic and Collisional Interaction of the Alpine Orogen with its Foreland……Page 753
Permian to Recent Evolution……Page 754
Permian to Recent Evolution……Page 755
Permian to Recent Evolution……Page 757
Permian to Recent Evolution……Page 758
Further Reading……Page 760
Major Tectonic Units……Page 761
Western Alps……Page 763
Alpine Nappe Structures……Page 765
Nappe Internal Deformation……Page 766
The Making of the Alps……Page 768
Introduction……Page 771
Western Mediterranean……Page 772
Mediterranean Tectonics……Page 773
Mediterranean Tectonics……Page 774
Mediterranean Tectonics……Page 775
Mediterranean Tectonics……Page 776
Mediterranean Tectonics……Page 778
Eastern Mediterranean……Page 780
Further Reading……Page 782
Climate……Page 783
Naturally Changing Holocene Landscapes in Europe……Page 784
Interrelation of Human Activity and Natural Environment……Page 788
Human Activity and Environmental Conservation……Page 790
Actualism in a New Context……Page 795
Historical Background……Page 796
Evolution and Genetics: The Living Record……Page 797
EVOLUTION……Page 798
Microevolution……Page 799
Macroevolution……Page 801
Further Reading……Page 802
Cruel Hoaxes……Page 804
Too Much Haste……Page 805
When a Fossil is Not a Forgery……Page 807
Further Reading……Page 808
Agassiz……Page 809
Further Reading……Page 813
Biography……Page 814
Cuvier’s Work and Achievements……Page 815
Influence: The ‘Domination of Cuvier’……Page 817
Further Reading……Page 818
Voyage……Page 819
Geological Publications and ideas on Glacial Phenomena……Page 820
Later Years, Evolution, and the Age of the Earth……Page 821
Further Reading……Page 822
Ancestry and Opportunities……Page 823
The Geological Commission of the Cape of Good Hope, 1903–1912……Page 824
Department of Irrigation, 1920–1927……Page 825
Years of Work and Wandering……Page 826
Retirement and Honours, 1941–1948……Page 828
Introduction……Page 829
The New York Survey……Page 830
The Albany Training Ground……Page 831
Beyond New York……Page 832
The Origin of Mountains……Page 833
See Also……Page 834
Hutton’s Early Career and the Beginning of His Interest in Geology……Page 835
Hutton’s Theory of Cyclic Earth Processes……Page 836
Geological Evidence to Support Hutton’s Theory……Page 837
Hutton’s Later Work on the Theory of Heat……Page 839
Further Reading……Page 840
Lyell……Page 841
Murchison……Page 845
Geological Work……Page 851
Sedgwick as a Teacher; Other Activities, Beliefs, and Character……Page 854
Further Reading……Page 855
Development of Smith’s Stratigraphic Principle……Page 856
Influence of Smith’s Work……Page 859
Further Reading……Page 860
Career, Science, and Beliefs……Page 861
Philosophy of Fossils and Recognition……Page 863
Philosophy of Stratigraphy and Reconstruction……Page 864
Philosophy of Crystals and Growth……Page 865
Philosophy of Science and the Limits of Knowledge……Page 867
Introduction……Page 868
Scientist, Engineer, and Politician……Page 869
The Origin of the Alps……Page 870
A Contracting Earth……Page 872
Global View: The Face of the Earth……Page 873
Further Reading……Page 876
Career……Page 877
Shallow Marine……Page 878
National Education……Page 879
Further Reading……Page 880
Meteorology and Polar Research……Page 881
A New Image of the Earth……Page 882
Geological and Palaeontological Evidence……Page 884
Motive Forces……Page 886
From Continental Drift to Plate Tectonics……Page 887
Introduction……Page 888
Phases Present at Room Temperature……Page 889
Prerequisites and Assumptions……Page 891
Principles of Fluid Inclusion Geothermometry and Geobarometry……Page 892
Chemical Compositions of Geological Fluids from the Analysis of Inclusions……Page 894
Futher Reading……Page 895
Introduction……Page 896
Comparison of Suspect Samples with Crime-Scene Samples and Other Reference Samples from Known Locations……Page 897
Persistence of Geological Evidence……Page 901
Location of Crime Scenes, Buried Bodies, and Weapons and Drugs Caches……Page 903
Studies of Human Remains……Page 905
Further Reading……Page 908
Introduction……Page 909
A Brief History……Page 911
Respiration……Page 912
Feeding……Page 913
Trace Fossils……Page 914
Further Reading……Page 915
Form of the Exoskeleton……Page 916
Eyes……Page 918
Growth……Page 921
Feeding……Page 923
Cambrian……Page 926
Silurian……Page 928
Biostratigraphy……Page 929
Introduction……Page 930
Geological History……Page 931
Collecting and Documentation……Page 933
Further Reading……Page 935
Brachiopod Animal……Page 936
Brachiopod Shell……Page 937
Ecology……Page 938
Geographical Distribution……Page 940
Extinctions and Radiations……Page 944
Anatomy and Feeding……Page 945
Reproduction and Growth……Page 947
Polymorphism and Within-colony Zooidal Variations……Page 948
Classification and Evolutionary History……Page 949
Cheilostomes……Page 950
Stenolaemates……Page 952
Occurrence……Page 953
Further Reading……Page 955
Precambrian Origins……Page 956
Phanerozoic Diversity……Page 957
Coral Structure and Taxonomy……Page 962
Scleractinia……Page 964
Palaeozoic Corals……Page 965
Glossary……Page 967
Further Reading……Page 968
Key Attributes of Echinoderms……Page 969
Geological History……Page 970
Echinoderms (Other Than Echinoids)……Page 971
Helicoplacoids……Page 972
Asteroids……Page 974
Holothurians……Page 975
Further Reading……Page 976
Morphology and Functional Interpretations……Page 977
Phylogeny, Systematics, and Geological History……Page 979
Ecology and Taphonomy……Page 983
Morphology of Post-Palaeozoic Echinoids……Page 985
Morphology of Palaeozoic Echinoids……Page 987
Predation and Defence……Page 989
Phylogeny and Classification……Page 990
Further Reading……Page 991
The Stolon System……Page 992
Ultrastructure……Page 994
Distinctions Between the Dendroidea and the Graptoloidea……Page 996
Occurrence in the Rocks and Preservation……Page 998
Broad Evolution of the Graptolites……Page 1000
Stratigraphic Use of Graptolites……Page 1001
Molluscs Overview……Page 1002
Introduction……Page 1004
Shell Morphology……Page 1005
Soft Part Anatomy……Page 1006
Ecology……Page 1007
Attachment……Page 1008
Boring……Page 1010
Taxonomy and Biological Relationships……Page 1011
Evolutionary History……Page 1012
Anatomical Features……Page 1013
Ontogeny……Page 1014
Shell Structure……Page 1015
Shell Coiling……Page 1016
Classification of the Gastropoda……Page 1018
Origin and Early History of the Gastropoda……Page 1020
Palaeozoic Era……Page 1021
Glossary……Page 1022
Further Reading……Page 1023
Cephalopod Morphology……Page 1024
Cephalopod Classification……Page 1025
Subclass Nautiloidea……Page 1026
Subclass Coleoidea……Page 1027
Further Reading……Page 1030
Shape and Architecture……Page 1031
Phylogeny……Page 1033
Growth, Longevity, and Sexual Dimorphism……Page 1034
Disputed Functions of Ammonitic Septa and Complex Sutures……Page 1036
Hydrostatics and Hydrodynamics: Reconstructing the Living Organism……Page 1037
Life Versus Death Assemblages: Migration and Post-Mortem Drift……Page 1039
Summary……Page 1041
Further Reading……Page 1042
Classification……Page 1043
Demospongea……Page 1044
Hexactinellida……Page 1046
Calcarea……Page 1047
Sclerospongiae……Page 1048
Archaeocyatha……Page 1051
Further Reading……Page 1052
Characteristics……Page 1053
Classification……Page 1054
Angiosperm Origins……Page 1055
Angiosperm Diversification……Page 1059
Further Reading……Page 1062
Corallinales……Page 1063
‘Solenoporaceae’……Page 1064
Coccolithophorales……Page 1065
Dasycladales……Page 1067
Charophyceae……Page 1068
Calcified Cyanobacteria……Page 1069
Further Reading……Page 1070
Fungi……Page 1071
Fossil Fungi……Page 1072
Fungi with Uncertain Affinities……Page 1075
Fossil Lichens……Page 1076
Glossary……Page 1077
Introduction……Page 1078
Classification……Page 1079
Gymnosperm Origins……Page 1080
Calamopityales (Upper Devonian to Lower Carboniferous)……Page 1082
Cycadales (? Carboniferous to Recent)……Page 1083
Voltziales (Late Carboniferous to Early Jurassic)……Page 1084
Glossopteridales (Permian to Triassic)……Page 1085
Ginkgoales (? Permian to Recent)……Page 1086
Pentoxylales (? Jurassic to Cretaceous)……Page 1087
Further Reading……Page 1088
Introduction……Page 1089
Conodonts……Page 1090
Agnathan Diversity……Page 1091
Silurian and Devonian Ostracoderms……Page 1092
Agnathan Relationships……Page 1094
Further Reading……Page 1096
The Appearance of Jaws……Page 1097
Early Sharks and Their Relatives……Page 1098
Placoderms……Page 1100
Actinopterygians……Page 1101
Further Reading……Page 1102
Introduction……Page 1103
The Earliest Tetrapods……Page 1104
Tetrapods of the Early Carboniferous……Page 1107
Tetrapods of the Late Carboniferous……Page 1110
Tetrapods of the Early Permian and Their Descendants……Page 1111
Further Reading……Page 1113
Early Amniotes……Page 1114
Early Diapsid Reptiles……Page 1117
Aquatic Reptiles……Page 1118
Early Archosauromorphs and Crocodiles……Page 1119
Caseidae……Page 1120
Varanopidae……Page 1121
Edaphosauridae……Page 1122
Sphenacodontia……Page 1123
Further Reading……Page 1124
Diagnostic Characters of the Dinosauria……Page 1125
Ornithischia……Page 1127
Saurischia……Page 1129
Physiology……Page 1130
Further Reading……Page 1131
Birds from the Mesozoic: Not just……Page 1132
The Radiation of Modern Birds: Bursting into the Cenozoic……Page 1134
Where From Here?……Page 1136
Marine Reptile Groups……Page 1137
Axial Swimmers……Page 1138
Paraxial Swimmers……Page 1140
Further Reading……Page 1142
Pterosaurs – Actively Flying Reptiles of the Mesozoic……Page 1143
History of Discovery……Page 1144
The Pterosaur Skeleton……Page 1145
Soft Tissue, Integument, and Pterosaur Life Appearance……Page 1146
Pterosaur Diversity and Phylogeny……Page 1148
Pterosaur Palaeobiology……Page 1149
Pterosaur Locomotion……Page 1150
Mesozoic Assemblages……Page 1151
Trematosauroidea……Page 1152
Capitosauroidea……Page 1153
Other Temnospondyls……Page 1154
Post-Triassic Temnospondyls……Page 1155
Frogs……Page 1156
Caecilians……Page 1157
Cenozoic Assemblages……Page 1158
Salamanders……Page 1159
Albanerpetontids……Page 1160
Further Reading……Page 1161
Origins of Mammalian Features……Page 1162
Jaw Hinge and Middle Ear……Page 1163
The Larger Brain……Page 1165
Diphyodont Dental Replacement……Page 1166
Successive Diversifications of Mesozoic Mammals……Page 1167
Rise of Modern Monotremes, Marsupials, and Placentals……Page 1168
Further Reading……Page 1169
Reproduction and Classification……Page 1170
Evolution……Page 1173
Further Reading……Page 1175
other than sapiens……Page 1176
Further Reading……Page 1180
Encyclopedia of Geology – Vol. 3……Page 1181
Molecular Biology: The Laws of the Universe……Page 1183
Criticism of the Gaia Concept……Page 1184
The Four Components of Gaia……Page 1185
Nisbet’s Essay……Page 1186
Beyond Gaia……Page 1187
Quantifying Gemstone Mining……Page 1188
Alluvial and Eluvial Deposits……Page 1189
Ruby and Sapphire Deposits……Page 1190
Mogok Rubies……Page 1191
Intrusive Igneous Rocks……Page 1192
Emerald……Page 1194
Further Reading……Page 1195
Geomorphology……Page 1196
Palynology……Page 1198
Geochemistry of Archaeomaterials……Page 1199
Mineralogy of Archaeomaterials……Page 1200
Ceramic Petrology……Page 1201
Conclusions……Page 1202
Near-Surface Dispersion of Elements……Page 1203
Diamond Exploration……Page 1204
Deep-Penetrating Geochemistry……Page 1205
Analysis of Samples……Page 1208
From Regional Exploration Geochemical Surveys to Environmental Geochemical Mapping……Page 1209
Introduction……Page 1211
The Value of Geodiversity……Page 1212
Site Assessment……Page 1213
Sustainable Management of Natural Systems……Page 1215
Raising Awareness of Geodiversity……Page 1216
Introduction……Page 1217
Defining ‘Geological Engineering’……Page 1218
Defining ‘Engineering Geology’……Page 1219
Relationship of Geological Engineering to Associated Fields……Page 1220
Historical Interactions Between Civil Engineering and Geology……Page 1221
Geological Engineering Professional Registration in USA……Page 1222
Professional Registration Approaches in Europe……Page 1223
A Look to the Future……Page 1224
Introduction……Page 1225
Air Photographs……Page 1226
Field Notebook……Page 1227
Other Equipment……Page 1228
Symbols……Page 1229
Use of Field Map……Page 1232
Further Reading……Page 1234
The Nature of Geological Maps……Page 1235
Visual Assessment……Page 1236
Quantitative Treatments……Page 1238
Further Reading……Page 1241
Introduction……Page 1242
Geological Society of London……Page 1243
Other Geological Societies……Page 1244
Further Reading……Page 1246
The Work of Geological Surveys……Page 1247
National Geological Surveys……Page 1248
Federal Geological Surveys……Page 1249
Later Developments……Page 1251
Relationships with Government……Page 1252
Further Reading……Page 1254
More Recent History……Page 1255
Academic Education……Page 1256
The Profession……Page 1257
Professional Qualifications……Page 1258
Introduction……Page 1260
Brewing in the UK……Page 1261
Brewing in the Rest of Europe……Page 1262
Further Reading……Page 1263
Distilleries……Page 1264
Temperature……Page 1267
Water Balance……Page 1269
Vine Nourishment……Page 1270
Further Reading……Page 1271
Fluvial Processes/Floods……Page 1272
Mass Wasting/Landslides……Page 1275
Glaciation……Page 1276
Further Reading……Page 1277
Geomythology in Classical Antiquity……Page 1278
Examples of Geomythology……Page 1279
Controversies and Future Directions……Page 1281
Introduction……Page 1282
Soil Mechanics and Rock Mechanics……Page 1283
Ground Investigation and Characterization……Page 1285
Further Reading……Page 1286
Geothermal Systems……Page 1287
Hydrothermal……Page 1288
Geysers……Page 1289
Sinter and Travertine Terraces……Page 1290
Exploitation of Volcanic-Related Geothermal Heat……Page 1291
Bath and Bristol Hot Springs……Page 1296
Seafloor Geothermal Activity……Page 1297
Commercial Applications……Page 1298
GLACIERS……Page 1299
Mineralogy, Geochemistry, and Natural Concentration of Gold……Page 1300
Archaean Gold–Quartz Conglomerates (‘Palaeoplacers’)……Page 1303
Carlin-Type Gold……Page 1304
Hard-Rock Mining……Page 1305
Gold Ore Processing……Page 1306
Cyanide Heap Leaching……Page 1307
Gold Markets and Economics……Page 1308
Further Reading……Page 1309
Early Ordovician (490–458 Ma)……Page 1310
Late Devonian (382.5–362 Ma)……Page 1311
Mid-Carboniferous, Namurian (327–311.5 Ma)……Page 1321
Late Permian (255–250 Ma)……Page 1324
Mid-Cretaceous, Albian–Cenomanian (ca. 100 Ma)……Page 1329
GRANITE……Page 1336
Definition of the Grenvillian Orogeny……Page 1337
Elzevirian Orogeny……Page 1339
Post-Elzevirian Activity……Page 1342
Post-Ottawan Activity……Page 1344
Appalachian Inliers……Page 1345
Further Reading……Page 1346
The Dawn of Geology……Page 1349
The First Geological Principles: The Observation Phase……Page 1351
Geology as a Science is Born……Page 1352
Further Reading……Page 1354
The ‘Little Men’ and a Geological Map……Page 1355
The Vulcanist–Neptunist Dispute……Page 1356
Reconstruction of Past Environments……Page 1357
Geology and Religion/Theology……Page 1358
Mountain Building……Page 1359
See Also……Page 1360
Stratigraphy……Page 1361
Darwinism and Evolution……Page 1362
Geomorphology and Landforms……Page 1363
Mountain Formation and Isostasy……Page 1364
The Formation and Age of the Earth……Page 1365
Rocks and their Formation……Page 1366
Introduction……Page 1367
Petrology (Igneous and Metamorphic)……Page 1368
Geochemistry……Page 1369
Palaeontology……Page 1370
Glaciation, Climate, and Palaeogeography……Page 1371
Exploration Geophysics……Page 1372
World Views……Page 1374
The Inner Earth……Page 1376
Impact Craters……Page 1377
Further Reading……Page 1378
Post-war Explorations of the Ocean Basins……Page 1379
Sea-floor Spreading: 1960 and 1961……Page 1380
Magnetic Anomalies on the Ocean Floors: 1961, 1963……Page 1382
Transform Faults: 1965……Page 1384
The Eltanin Profile: 1966……Page 1385
Plate Tectonics: 1967–1968……Page 1386
Plate Tectonics Today……Page 1387
Is Plate Tectonics Unique to the Earth?……Page 1388
Further Reading……Page 1389
Melting Processes……Page 1391
Decompression Melting……Page 1392
Magma Transport……Page 1394
Eruption……Page 1396
Fractional Crystallization……Page 1397
Glossary……Page 1398
Introduction……Page 1399
Field Relationships……Page 1400
Mineralogy……Page 1402
Economic Deposits……Page 1403
Geochemistry……Page 1404
OldoinyoLengai……Page 1407
The Source(s)……Page 1409
Plumes and Carbonatites……Page 1410
Metasomatism……Page 1411
Concluding Remarks……Page 1413
Introduction……Page 1415
Classification Schemes……Page 1416
Ascent and Emplacement Mechanisms……Page 1418
Enclaves……Page 1421
Mineralogy and Textures of Granitic Rocks……Page 1422
Petrogenic Studies……Page 1424
The Time-Scales of Granitic Magmatism……Page 1427
Definition……Page 1429
Diatremes……Page 1430
Geotectonic Settings……Page 1431
Age Relationships……Page 1432
Xenoliths……Page 1434
Diamond Provenance……Page 1437
Prospecting Methods……Page 1438
Lamproites……Page 1439
Further Reading……Page 1441
Introduction……Page 1442
Formation of High-MgO Liquids……Page 1443
Eruption and Solidification……Page 1444
Melting and Segregation of Komatiite Liquids……Page 1446
Further Reading……Page 1448
Historical……Page 1449
Eolian Islands……Page 1450
California……Page 1452
Obsidian as a Semiprecious Stone……Page 1453
Archaeological Tracing Methods……Page 1454
Further Reading……Page 1458
General Character of the Record……Page 1459
Morphology……Page 1460
Geology of Impact Structures……Page 1462
Fused and Diaplectic Glasses……Page 1463
Shatter Cones……Page 1464
Impacts and Earth Evolution……Page 1465
Further Reading……Page 1466
Precambrian Indian Crust……Page 1467
Bastar Craton……Page 1468
Singhbhum Craton……Page 1469
Southern Granulite Terrane……Page 1470
Definition, Classification, and Distribution……Page 1471
Sedimentation, Basin Morphology and Evolution……Page 1472
Between Jurassic Breakup and the Himalayan Collision……Page 1474
Geology and Evolution of the Himalayas……Page 1475
Himalayan Tectonics……Page 1477
Further Reading……Page 1478
Volcanism……Page 1479
Earthquakes……Page 1480
Geological Outline……Page 1482
Tectonic Evolution……Page 1484
Further Reading……Page 1486
JUPITER……Page 1487
Stratiform Concentration Deposits……Page 1489
Death, Decay, and Destruction……Page 1490
Stratiform Conservation Deposits (Table 1)……Page 1491
Bacteria……Page 1493
Pyrite……Page 1494
Temporal Trends in Exceptional Preservation?……Page 1495
Further Reading……Page 1496
Introduction……Page 1497
Distribution, Tectonic Setting, and Types……Page 1499
Ages……Page 1500
LIPs and Mantle Dynamics……Page 1501
LIPs and the Environment……Page 1502
Further Reading……Page 1504
Temperature and Viscosity of Lava……Page 1505
Volume, Effusion Rate, and Speed……Page 1506
Subaerial Lava……Page 1507
Underwater Eruption of Lava……Page 1508
Cooling Joints……Page 1509
Kilauea (Hawaii, USA)……Page 1510
Etna (Sicily)……Page 1511
Further Reading……Page 1512
The Geomagnetic Polarity Time-Scale……Page 1513
Remnant Magnetization……Page 1514
Field Sampling and Laboratory Analysis……Page 1515
Further Reading……Page 1516
Surface Expression of Hotspots……Page 1517
Upper Mantle……Page 1519
Lower Mantle and D00 Layer……Page 1520
Petrological and Geochemical Signatures of Hotspot Rocks……Page 1521
Dynamics of Mantle Plumes……Page 1523
Further Reading……Page 1524
MERCURY……Page 1525
Triassic Rocks……Page 1526
Time-Scale……Page 1527
Tectonics and Sedimentation……Page 1528
Climate……Page 1529
Flora……Page 1530
Shelled Marine Invertebrates……Page 1531
Tetrapods……Page 1532
Further Reading……Page 1533
Chronostratigraphy: Stages, Standard Zones, Subzones, and Horizons……Page 1534
Jurassic Geochronology……Page 1535
Climate……Page 1536
Benthic Algae (Including Chlorophyta (Dasycladales), Charophyta, and Rhodophyta)……Page 1537
Mollusca……Page 1538
Crustacea, Including Ostracoda……Page 1539
Chordata (Vertebrates)……Page 1540
Further Reading……Page 1541
Introduction……Page 1542
Stratigraphy……Page 1543
Palaeogeography and Tectonics……Page 1544
Sea-Level and Sedimentation Patterns……Page 1545
Climate……Page 1547
Fossil Protists……Page 1548
Marine Invertebrates……Page 1549
Terrestrial Vertebrates……Page 1550
Extinctions……Page 1552
See Also……Page 1553
Introduction……Page 1554
Historical Concept……Page 1555
Sources of Bias in the Fossil Record……Page 1556
Marine Microfossils……Page 1560
Marine Invertebrates……Page 1561
Marine Vertebrates……Page 1562
Terrestrial Vertebrates……Page 1563
Plants……Page 1564
Bolide Impact……Page 1565
Multiple Causes……Page 1566
Further Reading……Page 1567
Minor Specific Rock Names……Page 1568
Structural Root Names……Page 1569
Question 1: Is the Rock Metamorphic?……Page 1572
Introduction……Page 1573
Classification of Metamorphism……Page 1574
Metamorphic Processes and Reactions……Page 1575
Metamorphism of Different Protoliths……Page 1576
Ultramafic rocks……Page 1578
Quartzo-Feldspathic Rocks……Page 1579
Pelitic Rocks……Page 1580
Carbonate Rocks……Page 1581
Further Reading……Page 1583
The Metamorphic Facies Concept……Page 1584
Greenschist Facies……Page 1585
Zeolite Facies……Page 1586
Ultra-High-Pressure Metamorphism……Page 1587
Volatile Components and the Role of Water……Page 1588
Isofacial and Allofacial Conditions……Page 1589
Further Reading……Page 1590
PTt Paths: The Basics……Page 1591
Pressure–Temperature Controls……Page 1592
Simple Models: The Stable Geotherm……Page 1593
Simple Models: Perturbation of the Stable Geotherm and Regional Metamorphism……Page 1594
Contact Metamorphism……Page 1596
PTt Paths as Interpretative Tools……Page 1598
METEORITES……Page 1599
Acritarch Occurrence, Preservation, and Geothermal Alteration……Page 1600
Acritarch Morphology……Page 1601
Acritarch Clusters……Page 1602
Acritarchs without Processes or Flanges (Figure 6)……Page 1604
Acritarchs with Processes, with or without Flanges (Figure 6)……Page 1606
Biostratigraphy……Page 1607
Palaeoenvironmental Distribution……Page 1608
Further Reading……Page 1609
Morphology and Structure……Page 1610
Intervesicle Adjustments……Page 1611
Taxonomy and Classification……Page 1612
Biological Interpretation and Systematic Position……Page 1614
Biostratigraphy……Page 1616
Palaeoenvironments……Page 1620
Miscellaneous……Page 1621
Introduction……Page 1622
Anatomy of the Animals……Page 1623
Morphology and Internal Structure of the Elements……Page 1625
Biological Affinity of Conodonts……Page 1627
Architecture and Function of the Conodont Apparatus……Page 1628
Conodont Evolution and Biostratigraphy……Page 1629
Introduction……Page 1630
Classification of the Foraminifera……Page 1631
Classification……Page 1635
Morphology and Biology……Page 1637
Ecology……Page 1639
Geological History and Evolution……Page 1641
Applications……Page 1644
Further Reading……Page 1645
Quaternary Palynology……Page 1646
Other Geological Applications……Page 1650
Further Reading……Page 1651
Extraction Methods……Page 1652
Calcareous Microfossils……Page 1653
Acid-Insoluble Microfossils……Page 1654
Flotation……Page 1656
Introduction……Page 1657
Historical Background……Page 1658
Quarrying, Aggregates, and Mineral Resources……Page 1660
Water Supply……Page 1661
Engineering Geology……Page 1663
Terrain Analysis……Page 1665
Conclusion……Page 1667
Further Reading……Page 1669
Present Day Associations and Processes……Page 1670
Associations with Basic and Ultrabasic Rocks……Page 1673
Associations with Felsic Igneous Activity……Page 1674
Associations with Ancient Sedimentary Rocks……Page 1675
Metamorphic Associations……Page 1678
Further Reading……Page 1679
Definition of a Mineral Species……Page 1680
The Validation of Mineral Species……Page 1681
Historical Background……Page 1682
Current Comprehensive Classification Systems……Page 1683
Amphiboles……Page 1685
Physical Properties and Stability……Page 1688
Solubility and Alteration……Page 1690
Further Reading……Page 1691
Introduction……Page 1692
Geology and Mineralogy……Page 1693
Chemistry……Page 1696
Depositional Setting and Formation of Borate Deposits……Page 1697
Magmatic Sources……Page 1699
Exploration……Page 1700
Mining and Mineral Processing……Page 1701
Uses……Page 1702
Introduction……Page 1704
Constituent Minerals……Page 1705
Components……Page 1707
Classification……Page 1708
Depositional Systems……Page 1710
Reefs and Mounds……Page 1711
Non-Marine Carbonates……Page 1712
Diagenesis……Page 1713
Geographical Distribution of Chromates……Page 1714
Further Reading……Page 1715
Nomenclature……Page 1716
Structure……Page 1717
Alkali Feldspars……Page 1718
Plagioclase……Page 1719
Nepheline Subgroup……Page 1721
Leucite and Sodalite Groups……Page 1722
Further Reading……Page 1723
Composition……Page 1724
Glauconitization……Page 1725
Verdinization……Page 1726
X-Ray Diffraction Identification of Green Clays……Page 1727
In Space……Page 1728
Age Dating……Page 1729
Introduction……Page 1730
Chemistry……Page 1731
Further Reading……Page 1732
Secondary Molybdates……Page 1733
Further Reading……Page 1734
Solid Metals……Page 1735
Solid Non-Metals……Page 1736
Geographical Distribution of Nitrate Minerals……Page 1737
Further Reading……Page 1738
Crystal Chemistry of the Olivine Group……Page 1739
Nomenclature……Page 1740
Occurrence……Page 1741
Meteoritic Olivine……Page 1742
The Garnet Group……Page 1743
The aluminosilicates (Al2SiO5)……Page 1744
Tourmaline……Page 1745
The Chlorite Group……Page 1746
Serpentine……Page 1748
Pyroxenes……Page 1749
Quartz……Page 1751
Further Reading……Page 1753
Physical Properties of Gypsum……Page 1754
Further Reading……Page 1755
Compositions and Structures……Page 1756
Electrical, Magnetic, and Optical Properties……Page 1758
Sulphide Mineral Stability……Page 1760
Sulphide Paragenesis: Rocks, Sediments, and Ore Deposits……Page 1766
Introduction……Page 1768
Secondary Tungstates……Page 1769
Vanadates……Page 1770
Further Reading……Page 1772
Structure of Zeolites……Page 1773
Occurrences of Zeolites……Page 1777
Zeolites in Sedimentary Rocks……Page 1778
Zeolites in Lava Flows……Page 1780
Uses of Zeolites……Page 1781
Further Reading……Page 1782
Chemistry……Page 1783
Beach Placers……Page 1784
Radiometric Geochronology……Page 1786
Zircon Samples……Page 1787
Sensitive High-Resolution Ion Microprobe Technique……Page 1788
Further Reading……Page 1790
Borehole Drilling……Page 1791
Core Recovery……Page 1792
Further Reading……Page 1794
Small Exploration Companies with Mines or Mineral-Based Businesses……Page 1795
Strategies for Exploration……Page 1796
Geochemical Techniques……Page 1798
Recognizing Targets……Page 1799
Exploration……Page 1801
Success and Failure in Exploration……Page 1802
The Future of Exploration……Page 1804
Introduction……Page 1805
Further Reading……Page 1809
Hydrothermal Fluids……Page 1810
Hydrothermal Minerals……Page 1812
Hydrothermal Alteration……Page 1813
Magma-Hydrothermal Fluids……Page 1814
Magma-Heated Surface, Ground and Ocean Waters……Page 1816
Hydrothermal Fluids Not Directly Affiliated with Magmatic Processes……Page 1817
Further Reading……Page 1818
Element Partitioning……Page 1819
Incompatible Lithophile Elements……Page 1821
Cumulates……Page 1822
Chalcophile Elements……Page 1823
Magmatic Sulphide Deposits……Page 1824
Base Metal Sulphide Deposits……Page 1825
Introduction……Page 1827
Nature and Stability of the Moho-Discontinuity……Page 1828
Main Tectonic Units of the European Continent……Page 1830
Main Features of the MohoDiscontinuity in Europe……Page 1831
Northern and Eastern Europe……Page 1832
The Variscides of Central and Western Europe……Page 1833
Spectacular Crustal Root of the Uralides……Page 1834
The Post-Variscan Basins of Central and Western Europe……Page 1835
Central Alps and Northern Apennines……Page 1836
The Subcrustal Lithosphere in Europe……Page 1838
Further Reading……Page 1840
MOON……Page 1841
Encyclopedia of Geology – Vol. 4……Page 1842
Geological Basement……Page 1844
Eastern Province Terranes……Page 1845
Overlap Sequences……Page 1848
Late Cretaceous–Palaeogene Passive Margin……Page 1849
Further Reading……Page 1850
Introduction……Page 1851
Modern Plate Tectonic Context and Extent of Laurentia……Page 1852
Precambrian Nucleus of North America: General Structure……Page 1855
The Slave Craton……Page 1859
Proterozoic Orogens: the Glue of the Laurentian Collage……Page 1860
Post-1.8 Ga Growth and Modification of Laurentia……Page 1862
Further Reading……Page 1863
Introduction……Page 1864
The Foundation……Page 1865
The Sedimentary Veneer……Page 1866
The Phanerozoic Geological Record……Page 1868
The Sediments……Page 1871
Structural Development……Page 1873
Cratonic Structures……Page 1874
Mineral Resources……Page 1876
Introduction……Page 1879
Physiography……Page 1880
Crustal Thickness……Page 1881
Autochthonous and Parautochthonous Rocks……Page 1882
Rocks of the Orogenic Collage……Page 1885
Northern Cordilleran Mountain Building……Page 1886
Features east and north of the Northern Cordillera: Interior Plains System, Arctic Coastal Plain, and Arctic Ocean……Page 1887
Continental Margin Terranes……Page 1888
Accreted Terranes……Page 1889
Further Reading……Page 1890
Precambrian Framework……Page 1891
Palaeozoic Orogenies……Page 1893
Truncation of the Cordilleran Miogeocline and Pre-Cenozoic Strike–Slip Faulting along the South-western Margin of the Cordillera……Page 1895
Accreted Terranes……Page 1896
Jurassic Magmatic and Tectonic Events……Page 1897
Cretaceous Palaeogeographic Belts and Transition to an Andean-Type Continental Margin……Page 1898
Laramide Orogeny……Page 1899
Post-Laramide, Early Cenozoic Magmatic and Tectonic History……Page 1901
Further Reading……Page 1903
Introduction……Page 1904
Cambrian Continental Margin……Page 1905
Syn-Orogenic Sequence……Page 1906
Regional Subdivisions……Page 1908
Regional Geophysics……Page 1910
Tectonic Synthesis……Page 1913
Further Reading……Page 1914
Introduction……Page 1915
Rifting of Rodinia……Page 1916
Passive Margin Evolution……Page 1919
Pine Mountain Terrane……Page 1920
Mid-Palaeozoic Sedimentation and Neoacadian Docking of the Carolina Superterrane……Page 1921
Late Mississippian to Permian Alleghanian Zippered Collision with Gondwana and the Amalgamation of Pangaea……Page 1922
Further Reading……Page 1923
Tectonostratigraphical Divisions……Page 1924
Humber Zone……Page 1926
Dunnage Zone……Page 1927
Gander Zone……Page 1930
Meguma Zone……Page 1931
Overview and Summary of the Tectonic Evolution of the Northern Appalachians……Page 1932
Further Reading……Page 1934
Introduction……Page 1935
Morphology of the Margin……Page 1936
Passive Margin Structure……Page 1938
Sedimentary History and Palaeoenvironments……Page 1945
Energy, Mineral, and Water Resources……Page 1948
Current and Future Societal Issues……Page 1949
Conclusions……Page 1950
Further Reading……Page 1951
Platform and Foldbelt……Page 1952
Collisional Zone……Page 1953
Economic Minerals……Page 1955
Solomon Islands……Page 1956
Economic Geology……Page 1957
Vanuatu……Page 1958
Successor Basin Sediments……Page 1959
Economic Minerals……Page 1960
Islands of the Koro Sea……Page 1961
Tonga……Page 1963
Fiji……Page 1964
Vanuatu……Page 1965
Development of Ideas on the Origin of Life……Page 1966
The Tree of Life……Page 1967
The RNA World……Page 1968
Pre-RNA Worlds……Page 1969
Sources of Prebiotic Organic Molecules……Page 1970
Where did Life Originate?……Page 1971
Glossary……Page 1972
Further Reading……Page 1973
Geological Proxies of Palaeoclimate (Figures 1A and 1B)……Page 1974
Marine Carbonates……Page 1976
Palaeoclimate Models……Page 1977
Triassic: Comparison of Model and Proxy Data – A Case Study……Page 1978
Further Reading……Page 1982
Palaeoautecology……Page 1983
Palaeosynecology……Page 1985
Investigating Fossil Populations……Page 1986
Competition……Page 1987
Predation……Page 1988
Examples of Palaeosynecological Studies……Page 1989
Fundamentals……Page 1990
Palaeomagnetic Analysis……Page 1992
Palaeomagnetic Stability Tests……Page 1994
Palaeomagnetic Poles and Reconstruction of a Continent……Page 1995
Apparent Polar Wander Paths……Page 1996
Palaeolatitudes and Drift Rates – Links to Facies……Page 1997
Palaeomagnetism and Palaeogeography: the Big Picture……Page 1998
Introduction……Page 1999
Classification of Organisms……Page 2000
Human Understanding of Fossils……Page 2001
Further Reading……Page 2002
Palaeopathologies in Fossil Invertebrates……Page 2003
Palaeopathologies in Fossil Vertebrates……Page 2004
Further Reading……Page 2005
Chronostratigraphical Framework……Page 2006
Cambrian Palaeogeography……Page 2007
Cambrian Environments and Climates……Page 2008
Cambrian Life……Page 2014
The Neoproterozoic–Cambrian Biotic Transition……Page 2015
See Also……Page 2017
Introduction……Page 2018
Type Areas and Sections……Page 2019
Arenigian……Page 2020
Caradocian……Page 2021
Life in the Ordovician……Page 2022
The End-Ordovician Extinction and Glaciation……Page 2023
Ordovician Geography and Tectonics……Page 2024
Vulcanicity and Geochronology……Page 2025
Introduction……Page 2027
The Llandovery Series……Page 2028
The Wenlock Series……Page 2031
Norway and Sweden……Page 2032
Methods of Dating and Correlation……Page 2033
Tectonic Activity……Page 2034
Palaeogeography and Climate……Page 2035
Further Reading……Page 2036
The Plant Invasion……Page 2037
The Animal Invasion……Page 2038
Late Devonian Biodiversity Crises……Page 2039
The End-Devonian Biodiversity Crisis……Page 2040
The Late Devonian Biodiversity Crisis……Page 2041
Introduction……Page 2043
Mississippian–Pennsylvanian Boundary……Page 2044
Carboniferous Subdivisions……Page 2045
Lithologies and Environments……Page 2046
Palaeobiogeography……Page 2047
The Carboniferous Atmosphere……Page 2048
The Carboniferous Climate: Icehouse Conditions……Page 2050
Plants……Page 2052
Terrestrial Invertebrates……Page 2053
Vertebrates……Page 2054
Further Reading……Page 2055
Tectonics……Page 2057
Marine Fossils……Page 2059
Extinction……Page 2060
Further Reading……Page 2061
Definition and Dating……Page 2062
Terrestrial Extinctions……Page 2063
Extraterrestrial Impact……Page 2064
Global Warming……Page 2065
Post-Extinction Recovery……Page 2066
Conclusions……Page 2067
Late Carboniferous Accretion of Pangaea……Page 2068
Triassic Pangaea……Page 2070
Further Reading……Page 2071
Seal……Page 2072
Membrane Seal……Page 2073
Fault……Page 2074
Intrinsic Properties……Page 2075
Reservoir Lithologies……Page 2077
Trap……Page 2079
Structural Trap……Page 2080
Stratigraphical Trap……Page 2083
Migration……Page 2086
Primary Migration……Page 2087
Secondary Migration……Page 2088
Further Reading……Page 2090
Chemical Composition……Page 2091
Analytical Methods……Page 2093
Bulk Properties……Page 2095
Hydrocarbon Gases……Page 2100
Non-Hydrocarbon Gases……Page 2101
Further Reading……Page 2103
Introduction……Page 2104
Detection and Distribution of Gas Hydrates……Page 2106
Gas Hydrates as an Energy Source……Page 2107
Gas Hydrates as a Geohazard and Climate Mediator……Page 2109
Further Reading……Page 2110
Introduction and Definitions……Page 2111
Source Rock Deposition……Page 2112
Source Rock Characterization……Page 2114
Maturation……Page 2123
Generation and Expulsion……Page 2126
Migration……Page 2131
Accumulation and Survival……Page 2132
System Efficiencies……Page 2135
Further Reading……Page 2136
Generation, Migration, Alteration and Volumetrics……Page 2137
Geological Analysis……Page 2138
Geophysical Analysis……Page 2139
Prospect Appraisal Systems……Page 2144
Deterministic Models……Page 2145
Exploration Drilling……Page 2147
Petroleum Agreements……Page 2149
Further Reading……Page 2150
Historical Development of Production Geology……Page 2151
Controlling Reservoir Characteristics……Page 2154
Small-Scale Heterogeneity……Page 2156
Core Description and Analysis……Page 2158
Permeability Distribution……Page 2161
Fault and Fracture Analysis……Page 2162
Correlation and Use of Analogues……Page 2164
Volumetric Estimates……Page 2165
Geostatistics……Page 2166
Static Modelling……Page 2167
Dynamic Modelling……Page 2169
Conclusions……Page 2170
Further Reading……Page 2173
Definitions of Reserves……Page 2174
Predictions of Ultimate Recoverable Reserves……Page 2175
The Peak Oil and Depletion Debate……Page 2177
The Economic Viewpoint……Page 2180
Further Reading……Page 2182
Tectonic Plates, Lithosphere, and Asthenosphere……Page 2183
Plate Tectonics……Page 2184
Divergent (Ridge) Boundaries……Page 2185
Transform Boundaries……Page 2186
Rotation Poles……Page 2187
Measuring Plate Motions……Page 2189
Plates as Parts of the Mantle Convection Cycle……Page 2191
Further Reading……Page 2192
The Origin of the Earth……Page 2193
Precambrian Sediments and Climate……Page 2194
Precambrian Terranes and Palaeogeography……Page 2195
Introduction……Page 2197
Mesoproterozoic (1600–1000 Ma) Eukaryotes……Page 2200
Early Neoproterozoic……Page 2201
Late Neoproterozoic……Page 2203
Introduction……Page 2206
Molecular and Biochemical Evidence……Page 2208
Biogeochemistry……Page 2209
Stromatolites……Page 2210
Silicified Microbiotas……Page 2211
Criteria for Biogenicity……Page 2212
Further Reading……Page 2213
Geological Events……Page 2214
Palaeobiological Events……Page 2215
Earth System Events……Page 2219
Glossary……Page 2223
Further Reading……Page 2224
Fracture Surfaces……Page 2225
Cone-In-Cone Structures……Page 2226
Nodules and Concretions……Page 2227
Generation of Pyroclastic Material……Page 2229
Eruption Plumes……Page 2231
Pyroclast Types and Deposits……Page 2232
Pyroclastic Fall Deposits……Page 2233
Pyroclastic Density Currents and Their Deposits……Page 2234
Pyroclastic Density Current Transport and Deposition……Page 2237
Further Reading……Page 2240
Introduction……Page 2242
Types of Rock Quarries……Page 2243
Careers in the Quarrying Industry……Page 2244
Seeking and Gaining Stone Industry Employment……Page 2245
Quarry Restoration……Page 2246
Further Reading……Page 2248
Introduction……Page 2250
Regional Metamorphic Zones and Facies……Page 2251
Facies of High Pressure……Page 2252
The Barrovian-Type Metamorphic Complex of Naxos……Page 2253
Further Reading……Page 2256
Radars, Lidars and Sonars……Page 2257
Imaging Radar……Page 2258
Roughness Mapping……Page 2259
Ground Motion Measurement……Page 2260
Earthquakes and Tectonics……Page 2261
Further Reading……Page 2262
Introduction……Page 2263
Spatial Data, Models and, Structures……Page 2264
Visualization……Page 2265
Field Mapping……Page 2266
Geohazards……Page 2267
Multicriteria Evaluation and Uncertainty……Page 2270
Data Sharing and the Internet……Page 2272
Further Reading……Page 2273
What is a Passive Sensor?……Page 2274
Passive Sensor Imaging Technology……Page 2275
Across-Track Mechanical Scanner……Page 2276
Digital Cameras……Page 2278
Broadband Reflective Multispectral Imagery……Page 2279
Thermal Infrared (TIR) Sensors……Page 2280
Hyper-Spectral Sensors (Imaging Spectrometers)……Page 2281
RIFT VALLEYS……Page 2282
The Basic Components: In Situ Stress, Fractures, and Intact Rock……Page 2283
The Engineering Material: Rock Masses……Page 2286
Rock Engineering Topics……Page 2289
Engineering in Fractured Rock……Page 2290
Engineering in Continuous Rock……Page 2292
Numerical Analysis……Page 2293
Further Reading……Page 2294
Sedimentary Rocks……Page 2295
Complications and Anomalies……Page 2296
Sedimentary Rock Anomalies……Page 2297
Further Reading……Page 2298
East European Craton……Page 2299
Siberian Craton……Page 2304
Neoproterozoic Orogens……Page 2306
Altai-Mongol Domain……Page 2308
Kazakhstan-Khingan Domain……Page 2310
Circum-Pacific Orogenic Collages……Page 2311
Modern Plate Tectonics……Page 2314
Further Reading……Page 2316
Geochemical and Geophysical Characteristics……Page 2318
Global Distribution and Spatial Arrangement……Page 2319
Tectonic Setting: Intraplate Seamounts……Page 2320
SEAMOUNTS……Page 2321
Tectonic Setting: Island Arcs……Page 2322
Seamount Growth and Development……Page 2323
Why Seamounts Have Flat Tops……Page 2324
Critical Habitat……Page 2325
Further Reading……Page 2327
Facies……Page 2328
Facies Analysis……Page 2329
Architectural Elements and Bounding Surfaces……Page 2331
Sequence Stratigraphy and Key Surfaces……Page 2333
Further Reading……Page 2334
Alluvial Fans, Alluvial Sediments and Settings……Page 2335
Further Reading……Page 2336
Identifying Ancient Anoxic Environments……Page 2338
Oceanic Anoxic Events……Page 2340
Productivity versus Preservation……Page 2342
Introduction……Page 2344
Attached Rimmed Carbonate Shelf……Page 2348
Unattached Rimmed Carbonate Shelf……Page 2350
Attached Carbonate Ramp in an Arid Tropical Environment……Page 2352
Attached Carbonate Ramp in a Cold Temperate Environment……Page 2354
Introduction……Page 2356
History……Page 2357
Bottom Currents……Page 2358
Sediment Drifts……Page 2361
Seismic Characteristics……Page 2364
Medium Scale (i.e., Unit)……Page 2365
Facies Model……Page 2366
Facies Continuum and Distinguishing Criteria……Page 2369
Further Reading……Page 2370
Controls on the Variability of Deltas……Page 2371
River Mouth Processes and Plumes in Deltas……Page 2372
The Abandonment of Deltas……Page 2374
Syn-Sedimentary Deformation in Deltas……Page 2375
Deeper Seated Deformational Features……Page 2378
Economic Aspects……Page 2380
Introduction……Page 2382
Dunes and Sand Seas……Page 2383
Interdunes……Page 2384
Alluvial Fans……Page 2385
Bounding Surfaces in Aeolian Strata……Page 2386
Types of Desert Aeolian System……Page 2387
Dry Aeolian Systems……Page 2388
Stabilizing Aeolian Systems……Page 2389
Depositional Models for Desert Systems……Page 2390
Further Reading……Page 2392
Vertical Mixing……Page 2393
Waves……Page 2395
Mass Failure……Page 2397
Silica……Page 2399
Evaporites……Page 2400
Tectonic Processes……Page 2401
Further Reading……Page 2404
Modern Reefs……Page 2405
Reefs through Time……Page 2408
Further Reading……Page 2412
Wave Processes……Page 2413
Classification and Geomorphology of Shoreline Systems……Page 2416
Progradational Wave-Dominated Shoreline Systems……Page 2417
Vertical Succession through a Wave-Dominated Shoreface Succession……Page 2418
Low-Relief Transgressive Coastlines……Page 2420
High-Relief Transgressive Coastlines……Page 2421
Further Reading……Page 2422
Oceanographic Studies……Page 2423
Interpreting Ancient Tempestites……Page 2424
Further Reading……Page 2429
Introduction……Page 2430
Erosional Sole Marks……Page 2431
Sole Marks due to Fluid Turbulence……Page 2432
Tool Marks……Page 2433
Erosional Surface Forms……Page 2434
See Also……Page 2435
Suspension……Page 2436
Current Ripples and Ripple Lamination……Page 2437
Dunes, Sand Waves, and Cross-Bedding……Page 2439
Upper Flow Regime Bedforms and Lamination……Page 2440
Wave Ripples and their Lamination……Page 2441
Aeolian Bedforms and Internal Bedding……Page 2442
Decelerating Flows and the Bouma Sequence……Page 2443
Gravel Forms and Fabric……Page 2444
Soft-Sediment Deformation Processes……Page 2445
Deforming Forces……Page 2446
Convolute Lamination……Page 2447
Dish and Pillar Structures……Page 2449
Slumps and Slides……Page 2450
Sedimentary Growth Faults……Page 2451
Desiccation and Other Cracks……Page 2452
Periglacial Deformation……Page 2453
Further Reading……Page 2454
Sediment Movement by the Wind……Page 2455
Wind Erosion Landforms……Page 2458
Silt and Clay Size……Page 2459
Sand Dunes……Page 2461
Dune Processes and Dynamics……Page 2463
Sand Seas……Page 2465
Preservation of Aeolian Deposits in the Rock Record……Page 2466
Effects of Climate and Sea-Level Change on Aeolian Systems……Page 2469
Further Reading……Page 2470
Causes of Catastrophic Floods……Page 2471
Catastrophic Flood Characteristics……Page 2476
Geomorphic and Sedimentary Impact……Page 2480
See Also……Page 2483
Introduction……Page 2484
Sediment Sources……Page 2485
Sediment Transport Processes in Deep Water……Page 2486
Sediment Nomenclature……Page 2488
Continental Slopes……Page 2489
Sediment Distribution in Pelagic Realms……Page 2491
Further Reading……Page 2492
Introduction……Page 2493
Material Transfer……Page 2494
Form Units……Page 2497
Architectural Ensembles……Page 2499
Drainage Basins……Page 2500
Developments in Time……Page 2502
Further Reading……Page 2505
Global Distribution of Glaciers……Page 2506
Glacier Morphology……Page 2507
Glacier Mass Balance……Page 2508
Glacier Thermal Regime……Page 2509
Glacier Structure……Page 2510
Landforms of Glacial Erosion……Page 2511
Bathymetric Forms Resulting from Glacial Erosion……Page 2513
Processes of Glacial Deposition……Page 2514
Glacigenic Sediments……Page 2518
Depositional Landforms……Page 2519
Bathymetric Forms Resulting from Glacial Deposition……Page 2520
Introduction……Page 2521
Karst Processes……Page 2522
Small-Scale Karst (Karren)……Page 2523
Medium-Scale Karst (Karst Landforms)……Page 2524
Large-Scale Karst (Karst Landscapes)……Page 2525
Karst Drainage……Page 2526
Caves (Endokarst)……Page 2527
Palaeokarst and Interstratal Karst……Page 2529
Introduction……Page 2530
Types of Landslide……Page 2531
Reactivation of Ancient Landslides……Page 2534
Further Reading……Page 2535
Encyclopedia of Geology – Vol. 5……Page 2536
Terrestrial Input……Page 2538
Dense, Deformed Flows: Rockfalls, Grain flows, Debris Flows and Mudflows……Page 2539
Flow Transformations……Page 2540
Momentum Loss……Page 2541
Channelised flow……Page 2542
Deposition……Page 2543
Further Reading……Page 2544
Particle Settling Velocity ws……Page 2545
Aggregation……Page 2546
Regions of the Boundary Layer……Page 2547
Transport in Suspension……Page 2548
Sinking Deposition: Pelagic Flux……Page 2549
Rate of Deposition……Page 2550
Deposits Formed from Currents……Page 2551
Smaller, Current-Controlled Bedforms……Page 2552
Further Reading……Page 2553
Transport……Page 2554
Climate and Tectonism……Page 2555
Basin Processes……Page 2557
Wind Blown Sediment……Page 2558
The Importance of Geology……Page 2559
Sediment Budgets: Modelling the Past and Predicting the Future……Page 2560
Further Reading……Page 2561
Mineralogical Basis for Sedimentary Rock Classification……Page 2562
Conglomerate……Page 2563
Sandstones……Page 2564
Mudrocks……Page 2565
Carbonates……Page 2567
Residual Deposits……Page 2568
Ironstones……Page 2570
Phosphates……Page 2571
Siliceous Deposits……Page 2572
See Also……Page 2573
Nomenclature, Classification, Definition……Page 2574
The Banding……Page 2575
Distribution in Time……Page 2576
Theories of Origin……Page 2577
Further Reading……Page 2578
Composition……Page 2579
Facies and Processes……Page 2581
Palaeogeography……Page 2583
Chalk as a Hydrocarbon Reservoir and Aquifer……Page 2585
Further Reading……Page 2587
Silica Solubility and Precipitation……Page 2588
Biogenic……Page 2589
Bedded Cherts……Page 2590
Nodular Cherts……Page 2592
Chert in Lakes……Page 2595
Chert of Hydrothermal Origin……Page 2596
Further Reading……Page 2598
Clay Diagenesis in Mudrocks……Page 2599
Illitization of Smectite……Page 2600
Kaolinite……Page 2602
Kaolin Clays……Page 2603
Illite……Page 2604
See Also……Page 2606
History of Research……Page 2607
Types of Pelagic Deposits……Page 2610
Calcareous Oozes……Page 2611
Siliceous Oozes……Page 2612
Ferromanganese Deposits……Page 2613
Biogenic Sedimentation in the World Ocean……Page 2614
Further Reading……Page 2615
Basics……Page 2616
Mass Balance Constraints……Page 2617
Rock and Pore Classifications……Page 2618
Textural Evolution……Page 2619
Porosity and Permeability……Page 2620
Dolomite Geochemistry……Page 2621
Penecontemporaneous Dolomites and the Microbial/Organogenic Model……Page 2625
Hyposaline Environments and the Mixing Zone Model……Page 2626
Hypersaline Environments and the Reflux and Sabkha Models……Page 2627
Intermediate to Deep Burial (Subsurface) Environments and Models……Page 2628
Further Reading……Page 2630
Typical Composition of Evaporite Deposits……Page 2631
Evaporites as Hydrothermal Deposits in Rift Basins……Page 2632
Past Composition of Seawater……Page 2633
Introduction……Page 2634
Ironstone Mineralogy……Page 2635
Blackband Ironstones……Page 2636
Ooidal Ironstones……Page 2637
Environment of Deposition and Subsequent Alteration during Lithification……Page 2638
The Ferruginization Process……Page 2640
Further Reading……Page 2643
Differences between Limestones and Sandstones……Page 2644
Limestone Grains and Matrix……Page 2645
Limestone Depositional Environments……Page 2647
Economic Importance of Limestones……Page 2649
Introduction……Page 2650
Internal Structure……Page 2651
Growth Rates……Page 2652
Worldwide Nodule Distribution Patterns……Page 2653
Regional Compositional Variability……Page 2654
Economic Potential……Page 2656
Introduction……Page 2657
Structures with Polymerized TO4 Tetrahedra……Page 2658
Structures with TO4 Groups and Large Cations……Page 2659
Granite Pegmatites……Page 2661
Sediment-Hosted Phosphate Deposits……Page 2662
Phosphates in Oxidized Metal Sulphide Deposits……Page 2663
Phosphate Biomineralization……Page 2664
Further Reading……Page 2665
Rudaceous Rock Textures and Fabrics……Page 2666
Clasts in Natural Environments……Page 2668
Clasts in Streams……Page 2669
Clasts on Beaches……Page 2670
Clasts on Alluvial Fans……Page 2672
Clasts in Braided Rivers……Page 2674
Clasts in Tills……Page 2676
Further Reading……Page 2677
Grain Size and Sorting……Page 2678
Detrital Mineralogy……Page 2679
Diagenetic Mineralogy……Page 2680
Diagenetic Sequence……Page 2681
Mineral Dissolution……Page 2682
Diagenesis Quantified……Page 2683
Diagenesis and Petroleum Emplacement……Page 2685
Impact of Diagenesis on Porosity and Permeability……Page 2686
Further Reading……Page 2687
Introduction……Page 2688
Data Acquisition and Processing……Page 2689
3D Seismic……Page 2691
Interpretation……Page 2693
Seismic Reflection in the Oil and Gas Industry……Page 2694
Further Reading……Page 2695
Development of the Concept……Page 2696
Parasequence-Stacking Patterns……Page 2697
Recognition of Sequences and Systems Tracts……Page 2699
Surfaces……Page 2701
Systems Tracts……Page 2702
Variations by Depositional System……Page 2703
Palaeontological Expression of Sequences……Page 2704
Sea-Level Change……Page 2705
Sediment Supply……Page 2708
Further Reading……Page 2709
Seismic Characteristics……Page 2710
Composition of the Crust in Cratons……Page 2711
Crustal Provinces and Terranes……Page 2712
Supercontinents and Cratons……Page 2714
Further Reading……Page 2715
Introduction……Page 2716
Shock Waves and Large Impacts……Page 2717
Controversial Issues……Page 2719
See Also……Page 2720
Mechanics: Strength, Stiffness, Compressibility, and Permeability……Page 2721
Drainage and Consolidation……Page 2722
Atterberg Limits……Page 2723
Isotropic Compression and Swelling……Page 2724
State: Stress and Packing……Page 2725
Behaviour of Soil During Shearing……Page 2726
Undrained Strength……Page 2727
Stiffness of Soil……Page 2728
Normalization and a State Boundary Surface……Page 2729
Further Reading……Page 2730
Introduction……Page 2731
Podzolization……Page 2732
Biocycling……Page 2734
Lixiviation……Page 2735
Vertization……Page 2736
Solodization……Page 2737
Glossary……Page 2738
Further Reading……Page 2739
Recognition of Palaeosols……Page 2740
Alteration of Soils after Burial……Page 2741
Palaeosols and Ancient Ecosystems……Page 2742
Palaeosols and their Parent Materials……Page 2743
Glossary……Page 2744
Further Reading……Page 2745
Composition of the Sun……Page 2746
Solar Magnetic Fields……Page 2747
The Outer Solar Atmosphere……Page 2748
Basic Properties of the Solar Wind……Page 2749
Origin of the Sun’s Winds……Page 2750
Radiation from the Sun……Page 2751
Our Sun-Layered Atmosphere……Page 2752
Intense Geomagnetic Storms……Page 2754
Space Weather……Page 2755
Distribution of the Asteroids……Page 2757
Asteroid Surfaces and Composition……Page 2758
Asteroids closer-in than the Main Belt……Page 2759
Nature of Comets……Page 2760
Halley’s Comet……Page 2761
Great Comets……Page 2762
Life in Comets?……Page 2763
Further Reading……Page 2764
Historical: the Fall of Stones and Metal from the Sky……Page 2765
Classification……Page 2766
Meteorites within Meteorites……Page 2767
Age……Page 2768
Asteroidal……Page 2770
Martian Achondrites?……Page 2771
Fossil Meteorites……Page 2772
State-of-the-Art Research……Page 2773
Further Reading……Page 2774
Technical Summary……Page 2775
Results……Page 2776
Volcanism on Mercury?……Page 2778
The Future: ‘Messenger’ and ‘Bepi Colombo’……Page 2779
Further Reading……Page 2780
Introduction……Page 2781
Surface Conditions and Rock Composition……Page 2782
Surface Population of Impact Craters……Page 2783
Major Tectonic Features……Page 2784
Regional Plains on Venus……Page 2789
Major Volcano-Tectonic Features……Page 2794
Major Topographic Features……Page 2795
Heat Loss Mechanisms……Page 2797
Models of Geological History on Venus……Page 2799
Further Reading……Page 2800
Origin……Page 2801
Structure and Atmosphere……Page 2802
Lunar Missions……Page 2803
Surface Features……Page 2804
Lunar Rocks……Page 2805
Origin of the Craters……Page 2807
Eclipses……Page 2808
Introduction……Page 2809
Martian Atmosphere and Aeolian Processes……Page 2810
Global Hemispheric Dichotomy and Crustal Thickness……Page 2811
Mineralogy and Petrology……Page 2812
Water on Mars……Page 2814
Large-Scale Features……Page 2815
Martian Polar Regions……Page 2816
Mars Exploration Rover Missions……Page 2817
Further Reading……Page 2818
Jupiter……Page 2819
Satellites……Page 2820
Saturn……Page 2822
Satellites……Page 2823
Further Reading……Page 2825
Uranus……Page 2826
Neptune……Page 2828
Pluto……Page 2830
Further Reading……Page 2831
First Principles……Page 2832
Stratigraphic Classification……Page 2836
Lithostratigraphic Units……Page 2837
Chronostratigraphic and Geochronological Units……Page 2838
Stratotypes……Page 2840
Further Reading……Page 2841
SUN……Page 2842
Wedge Geometry and Fluid Pressure……Page 2844
Wedge Growth……Page 2846
Fluid Flow, Seeps, and Methane Hydrate……Page 2849
Tectonic Erosion at Subduction Zones……Page 2850
Erosion by Basement Topography……Page 2851
Oblique Subduction……Page 2852
Further Reading……Page 2854
The Nature of Earthquakes……Page 2855
The Importance of Seismological Records……Page 2857
Earthquakes as a Major Hazard: Tectonic, Volcanic, and Man-Made Earthquakes……Page 2858
Tectonic Earthquakes……Page 2859
Further Reading……Page 2866
Introduction……Page 2867
Fault Geometry……Page 2868
Seismological and Geodetic Studies……Page 2869
Fault Strength……Page 2871
Faulting and Rock Friction……Page 2873
Further Reading……Page 2875
Fold Geometry……Page 2876
Interface Buckling……Page 2877
Single Layer Buckling……Page 2878
Multilayer Buckling……Page 2880
Experimental Work on Folds……Page 2881
Three-Dimensional Geometry of Buckle Folds……Page 2883
Bending……Page 2884
Implications of Folds Regarding the Properties of the Rock……Page 2885
Strain Within a Folded Layer and Associated Fracturing……Page 2886
Further Reading……Page 2888
Shear Failure……Page 2889
Classification of Faults……Page 2890
Tensile Failure……Page 2891
The Organization of Tensile Fractures……Page 2893
Fracture Sets……Page 2895
Fracture Networks……Page 2896
Scale of Fracturing……Page 2897
Further Reading……Page 2898
Physics and Chemistry……Page 2899
Heat……Page 2902
Fluid Sources……Page 2903
The Circulation System……Page 2904
Two-Phase Flow……Page 2906
Future Directions……Page 2908
Introduction……Page 2909
Ridge Segmentation……Page 2912
Fine-Scale Variations in Ridge Morphology Within the Axial Neovolcanic Zone……Page 2917
Faulting……Page 2920
Further Reading……Page 2924
Introduction……Page 2925
Intermediateand Slow-Spreading Ridges……Page 2926
Structure, Morphology, and Size of Deposits……Page 2927
Elemental and Mineral Compositions of Deposits……Page 2928
Chimneys as Habitats……Page 2929
Fossil Record of Hydrothermal Vent Organisms……Page 2931
Further Reading……Page 2932
Oceanic Propagators……Page 2933
Microplates……Page 2935
Implications……Page 2940
Introduction……Page 2942
Early Studies……Page 2943
Early Studies……Page 2944
Characteristics of the Axial Magma Chamber at Mid-Ocean Ridges……Page 2947
Characteristics of the Moho at Mid-Ocean Ridges……Page 2949
Variations in Mid-Ocean Ridge Structure……Page 2951
What Controls the Depth at Which Magma Chambers Reside at Ridges?……Page 2952
Introduction……Page 2954
Ophiolites and Mountain Building……Page 2955
Andean-Type Mountain Building……Page 2956
Himalayan-Type Mountain Building……Page 2957
Tibetan Plateau……Page 2960
Conclusions……Page 2961
Active Tectonics……Page 2962
Global Tectonics……Page 2963
Glacial Isostatic Adjustment……Page 2964
Early Years of Study……Page 2965
Geographical Distribution……Page 2967
Morphological Expression……Page 2968
Accretionary Prisms and Sediment Transport……Page 2969
Water and Biosphere……Page 2970
Outer Trench Swell……Page 2971
Controls on Trench Depth……Page 2972
Further Reading……Page 2973
Morphology and Structure……Page 2974
Origin……Page 2975
The Impact of Rifting on Hydrology, Climate, and Ecology……Page 2976
Rifts as Sedimentary Basins……Page 2978
Further Reading……Page 2979
Historical……Page 2980
Central European Strewn Field……Page 2981
Ivory Coast Strewn Field……Page 2982
Australasian Strewn Field……Page 2983
Microtektites……Page 2985
Tektite Composition, Experimental Data, and Theoretical Considerations……Page 2986
Libyan Desert Glass and Mount Darwin Glass……Page 2987
The Eltanin Glasses……Page 2988
Late Eocene Microspherules……Page 2989
K–T Boundary Glass Bodies……Page 2990
Further Reading……Page 2991
Principal Terranes……Page 2992
Identifying the Positions of Old Terranes……Page 2993
Introduction……Page 2996
Plate Tectonics and Other Physical Phenomena……Page 2997
Marine Realm……Page 2999
Continental Realm……Page 3000
Continental Realm……Page 3001
Further Reading……Page 3002
Plate Tectonics and Other Physical Phenomena……Page 3003
Marine Realm……Page 3005
Continental Realm……Page 3006
Marine Environments……Page 3007
Further Reading……Page 3008
Introduction……Page 3009
Oligocene Climate……Page 3010
Oligocene Life……Page 3012
Palaeogeography……Page 3013
Further Reading……Page 3014
Geochronology……Page 3015
North America……Page 3016
Africa……Page 3018
Marine Life……Page 3019
Animals……Page 3020
Glossary……Page 3021
Further Reading……Page 3022
Piacenzian (Middle Pliocene)……Page 3023
Tectonics……Page 3024
The Ice Age……Page 3026
The Great American Interchange……Page 3027
Hominin Diversification……Page 3028
Further Reading……Page 3029
Historical Studies……Page 3030
Life on Earth in the Pleistocene……Page 3032
Processes, which may cause thermal perturbations on a regional scale……Page 3036
Processes, which may cause thermal perturbations on a local scale……Page 3037
Mineral Zones in Thermal Metamorphism……Page 3038
Further Reading……Page 3039
Geological Time and the Rock Record……Page 3040
Global Stratotype Section and Point……Page 3041
Building a Geological Time-Scale……Page 3042
Which Time Scale Should Be Used?……Page 3052
Music of the Spheres……Page 3053
Decay of Atoms……Page 3055
Further Reading……Page 3056
Introduction……Page 3057
Taxonomy……Page 3058
Preservation……Page 3060
Ethology……Page 3061
Ichnofacies……Page 3063
Use of Infaunal Ecospace: Endobenthic Tiering……Page 3066
Further Reading……Page 3068
Identification of UHP Rocks……Page 3070
Global Distribution……Page 3073
Kokchetav Massif in Northern Kazakhstan……Page 3074
Mechanisms……Page 3075
Conclusions……Page 3076
Further Reading……Page 3077
Introduction……Page 3078
History of the Concept……Page 3079
Lateral Variation……Page 3080
Unconformities and the Stratigraphic Record……Page 3081
Unconformities, Seismic Stratigraphy, and Sequence Stratigraphy……Page 3082
Further Reading……Page 3084
Flow Types……Page 3085
Velocity Profiles and Boundary Layer Structure……Page 3086
The Estimation of Boundary Shear Stress……Page 3087
The Structure of Turbulent Boundary Layers……Page 3088
Flow Separation……Page 3089
Free Shear Layers……Page 3090
The Type and Quantity of Suspended Sediment……Page 3091
Further Reading……Page 3093
Introduction……Page 3094
Problematic Conditions of Urban Construction……Page 3095
Role of the Engineering Geologist……Page 3096
Engineering Geological Site Characterization……Page 3099
Further Reading……Page 3100
Distribution of Volcanoes……Page 3102
Central Eruption……Page 3103
Lavas……Page 3104
Volcanic Clouds……Page 3108
Volcanoes as a Major Natural Hazard……Page 3109
Volcanoes and Earthquakes……Page 3112
Further Reading……Page 3115
Joints, Cracks, and Microcracks……Page 3118
Minerals and Rates of Weathering……Page 3119
Weathering in Surface Landscape Interpretation……Page 3120
Magnitude and Frequency in Rock Weathering……Page 3122
Feedback Mechanisms……Page 3123
Equifinality – The Problem of Linking Process and Form……Page 3124
Weathering Related to Engineering and Economic Geology……Page 3125
Long-Term Changes in Weathering – Some Complicating Factors……Page 3126
Further Reading……Page 3127
Index……Page 3128
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