Process Industrial Instruments and Control Handbook

Table of contents :
Index……Page 0
localhost – /Process-Industrial Instruments and Control Handbook/……Page 1
Under Construction……Page 2
1. Introductory Review……Page 3
2. Control System Fundamentals……Page 17
Process Reaction Curve……Page 20
Process Transfer Function……Page 25
On-Off Control Action……Page 27
Proportional Control……Page 28
Offset……Page 31
Automatic Reset-Proportional Plus Integral Controllers……Page 32
Integral Saturation……Page 34
Time- and Current-Proportioning Controllers……Page 35
Process Control Characteristics and Controller Selection……Page 38
Controller Selection……Page 39
Single-Capacity Processes……Page 40
Multicapacity Processes……Page 41
Digital Control……Page 46
State-Space Representation……Page 47
Transfer-Operator Representation……Page 48
Feedback Control……Page 49
Robustness……Page 50
Feedforward Control……Page 53
Multiple-Loop Control……Page 54
Linear-Quadratic Design……Page 56
Minimum-Time Switching Control……Page 57
Minimum-Variance Design……Page 58
Algebraic Proportional Plus Integral Plus Derivative Design……Page 60
Antialias Filtering……Page 63
Adaptive Control……Page 64
Pattern Recognition and Expert Systems, Performance-Feedback Adaptor……Page 66
Discrete-Model Identification, Open-Loop Adaptation……Page 68
Continuous-Model Identification, Open-Loop Adaptation……Page 70
Least-Squares Method, Batch Parameter Identification……Page 71
References……Page 72
Introduction……Page 73
Structure of Traditional Process Control……Page 75
Fixed-Point Format……Page 77
Fixed-Point Scaling……Page 78
Range and Error in Fixed-Point Arithmetic……Page 79
Fixed-Point Multiplication and Division……Page 80
Digital Integration for Control……Page 81
Floating-Point Format……Page 82
Generalized Multiple-Precision Floating-Point……Page 83
Specification of Fixed-Point Algorithms……Page 84
Operational Issues……Page 85
Output Limiting: External Feedback……Page 87
External Feedback in Nonlinear Compensators……Page 89
Lead/Lag Calculation……Page 90
PID Controller Calculation……Page 91
Dead-Time Calculation……Page 93
Quantization and Saturation Effects……Page 94
Identification and Matrix-Oriented Issues……Page 95
Software and Application Issues……Page 97
References……Page 98
Safety in Instrumentation and Control Systems……Page 99
Classifying a Hazardous Location……Page 100
Techniques Used to Reduce Explosion Hazards……Page 102
Explosionproof Housings……Page 103
Pressurization Systems……Page 104
Intrinsic Safety……Page 106
Early Developments……Page 107
Mechanical and Electrical Isolation……Page 108
Current and Voltage Limiting……Page 109
Analytical Method for Circuit Design……Page 110
Simplifying Assumptions……Page 111
Testing of Special Cases……Page 112
General Principles……Page 113
Ignition by Optical Sources……Page 115
Bibliography……Page 116
3. Controllers……Page 118
Introduction……Page 123
Evolution of the Distributed Control System……Page 124
Sampled Data Interval Induced Deadtime……Page 127
Loop Commissioning: Initialization Sequences and Bumpless-Balanceless Transfer……Page 131
Transition from Automatic Control to Production Management……Page 134
Fieldbus and Intelligent Devices……Page 138
Internet Technology……Page 140
Object-Oriented Software Components and Containers……Page 141
Complete and Detailed Functional Specification and System Requirements Definitions……Page 142
System Evaluation: Budget, Schedule, and Risk Assessment……Page 146
Conclusions……Page 147
Bibliography……Page 148
Programmable Controllers Defined……Page 149
PC-Based Control……Page 150
Single-Board Controllers……Page 151
Networking Choices……Page 152
Control Network Example……Page 153
Device Network Example……Page 154
Chassis-Based vs. Distributed I/O……Page 155
Software Choices……Page 156
Sequential Function Charts (SFCs)……Page 158
Structured Text……Page 160
Software Standards……Page 161
Controller Selection……Page 163
Speed……Page 164
The Application……Page 165
Safety/Data Integrity……Page 166
Stand-Alone Controllers……Page 167
Single- and Dual-Loop Controllers……Page 170
Reference……Page 174
Hydraulic Controllers……Page 175
Elements of Hydraulic Controllers……Page 176
Jet Pipe Valve……Page 177
Two-Stage Valves……Page 179
Proportional Valves……Page 181
Fire-Resistant Fluids……Page 182
Power Considerations……Page 183
Applications……Page 184
Size-Selection Procedures……Page 185
Relative Advantages and Limitations……Page 187
Batch Mode……Page 188
Batching Nomenclature……Page 190
Defining and Outlining the Batch Process……Page 192
System Selection Factors……Page 195
References……Page 202
Typical Blend Configuration……Page 203
Liquid or Powder Blending……Page 204
Blend Setup……Page 205
Automatic Rate Control……Page 208
Distributed Numerical Control and Networking……Page 209
Basic DNC Configuration……Page 210
Advantages of Basic DNC System……Page 211
DNC Operating Systems……Page 213
Personal Computer DNC Systems……Page 214
UNIX-Based Network……Page 216
DNC System Trends Controllers……Page 217
Computers and Controls……Page 218
Initial Considerations of Computers in Control Systems……Page 219
Basic PC……Page 222
PC Speed……Page 223
Interfacing the PC……Page 224
PC Software……Page 225
Software Control Techniques……Page 227
Progressive Enhancement of the PC……Page 228
Terminology……Page 229
The History of MMS……Page 252
The MMS Standard……Page 253
Benefits of MMS……Page 254
Justifying MMS……Page 255
Client/Server Relationship……Page 256
MMS Device and Object Modeling……Page 258
MMS Objects……Page 259
The VMD Execution Model……Page 260
Domains……Page 261
Program Invocations……Page 262
Batch Controller Example……Page 263
Variable-Access Services……Page 267
MMS Variables……Page 264
Event Management Model……Page 268
Event Condition Object……Page 269
Event Actions……Page 270
Event Enrollments……Page 271
Semaphore Management Model……Page 273
Pool Semaphores……Page 274
Semaphore Entry……Page 275
Semaphore Services……Page 276
Journal Objects……Page 277
Context Management……Page 278
Context Management Services……Page 279
Introduction……Page 280
Hardware……Page 283
Software……Page 284
Characteristics of a Field-Based System……Page 286
Field-Based System Results……Page 288
References……Page 289
4. Process Variables-Field Instrumentation……Page 290
Temperature Defined……Page 297
Temperature Scale Conversion……Page 298
Thermocouple Principles……Page 301
Thermocouple Signal Conditioning……Page 302
Thermocouple Fabrication and Protection……Page 303
Thermocouple Installation……Page 306
Thermocouple Circuit Flexibility……Page 307
Resistance-Temperature Detectors……Page 309
Principles of Resistance Thermometry……Page 310
Platinum RTDs……Page 311
RTD Circuitry……Page 313
Thermocouple and RTD Transmitters……Page 315
Evolution of Temperature Transmitters……Page 316
Thermistors……Page 317
Thermistor Applications……Page 321
IR Thermometry Principles……Page 323
Measuring Temperatures of Nonblackbodies……Page 326
Classes of IR Thermometers……Page 330
Filled-System Thermometers……Page 333
Fiber-Optic Temperature Sensor……Page 335
Reference……Page 336
Fluid Pressure Systems……Page 337
Manometers……Page 338
Elastic-Element Mechanical Pressure Gages……Page 342
Force or Pressure Sensors, Transducers and Transmitters……Page 343
Strain-Gage Transducers……Page 344
Capacitive Pressure Transducers……Page 358
Piezoelectric Pressure Transducers……Page 362
Resonant-Wire Pressure Transducers……Page 364
Reluctive Elements……Page 366
Vacuum Measurement……Page 367
Pirani or Thermocouple Vacuum Gage……Page 369
Hot-Filament Ionization Vacuum Gage……Page 371
Cold-Cathode Ionization Vacuum Gage……Page 372
Spinning-Rotor Friction Vacuum Gage……Page 374
Partial-Pressure Analyzers (Vacuum)……Page 375
Smart Pressure Transmitters……Page 376
Application of Chemical Seals……Page 377
Chemical Seal Hardware……Page 381
Response Time……Page 382
Restriction Flow Measurement with Primary Devices and Differential Pressure Transmitters……Page 384
Errors in Orifice Plate System……Page 391
Orifice Application, Device Selection……Page 393
Pitot Tube Application……Page 394
Basic Flow Metering Considerations……Page 395
Differential-Pressure Flowmeters……Page 397
Variable-Area Flowmeters……Page 399
Measuring Principle……Page 403
Construction……Page 404
Application Areas……Page 405
Magmeter Installation Tips and Suggestions……Page 406
Alternating (ac) Field System……Page 407
Pulsed Direct (dc) Field Systems……Page 408
The Inductive Flowmeter for Special Measurement Problems……Page 410
Reynolds Numbers……Page 411
Turbine Flowmeter Construction……Page 412
Oscillatory Flowmeters……Page 414
Vortex Shedding Flowmeters……Page 415
Vortex Meter Advantages……Page 416
Process Variables-Field Instrumentation……Page 417
Fluidic Operating Principle……Page 419
Inferential Mass Flow Measurement (Microprocessor-Based Volumetric Flowmeters)……Page 420
Vortex Flowmeter Liquid Mass……Page 421
Differential Pressure Meter Gas Mass……Page 422
Glossary……Page 423
Principle of Operation……Page 424
Temperature Measurement……Page 426
Thermal Mass Flowmeters……Page 428
Flow Application Matrix……Page 429
Doppler-Effect (Frequency-Shift) Flowmeters……Page 431
Transit-Time Ultrasonic Flowmeters……Page 433
Positive-Displacement Flowmeters……Page 434
Oscillating-Piston Meter……Page 435
Oval-Shaped Gear Flowmeters……Page 437
Other Positive-Displacement Meters……Page 438
Parshall Flumes……Page 439
Open-Flow Nozzle (Kennison)……Page 440
Bulk-Solids Flow Measurement……Page 441
Belt-Conveyor Weighers……Page 442
Types of Level Measurement Systems……Page 443
General Considerations in Level Measurement Technology Selection……Page 445
Ambient Temperature……Page 446
Vapor, Mist and Dust……Page 447
Material Buildup or Stickiness……Page 448
Electromechanical Level Measurement and Detection Systems……Page 449
Level Detection and Measurement of Liquids by Use of Displacers……Page 450
Level Measurement of Liquids and Solids by Use of a Plumb Bob……Page 451
Level Detection of Liquids by Use of Conductivity……Page 452
Level Detection of Liquids by Use of Vibrating Forks Resonance or Rod Attenuation……Page 453
Level Detection of Solids by Use of Vibrating Fork or Rod Attenuation……Page 454
Level Measurement of Liquids by Use of Bubblers……Page 456
Level Measurement by Use of Pressure Transmitters……Page 457
Electronic DP Measurement……Page 461
Level Detection and Measurement of Liquids and Solids by Use of Ultrasonic……Page 463
Level Detection and Measurement of Liquids and Solids by Use of Capacitance……Page 466
Fully and Partially Insulated Probes……Page 467
Capacitance Probes and Buildup……Page 468
Installation and Application Considerations……Page 469
Point Level Measurement……Page 470
Selection Criteria……Page 471
Level Detection and Measurement of Liquids and Solids by Use of Time-Domain Reflectometry……Page 472
Level Measurement of Liquids by Use of Magnetostrictive……Page 473
Level Detection and Measurement of Liquids and Solids by Use of Radiometric……Page 474
Level Measurement of Liquids by Use of Optics……Page 476
Level Detection of Liquids by Use of Ultrasonic Tank Resonance……Page 477
Industrial Scales……Page 479
Fluid Density……Page 480
Humidity and Moisture Systems……Page 485
Humidity Fundamentals……Page 486
Other Important Terminology……Page 487
Percent Relative Humidity……Page 488
Dew Point Hygrometry……Page 489
Direct Measurements Versus Sample Systems……Page 491
Thermometry Based……Page 497
Capacitance……Page 508
Resistance……Page 512
Optical Property Based……Page 513
Mechanical Effect Based……Page 514
Chemical Reaction Based……Page 517
Application Guide for Gases……Page 522
Aluminum Oxide……Page 524
Centrifugal……Page 525
General Observations……Page 526
Calibration……Page 527
Applications……Page 528
Reference……Page 538
5. Geometric and Motion Sensors……Page 539
Dimensional Standards……Page 543
Interferometer……Page 544
Gage Blocks……Page 545
Clinometer……Page 547
Protractor……Page 548
Sine Bar……Page 549
Miniature Positioning Tables (Stages)……Page 550
Positioning Table Geometry……Page 551
Machine Conditions and Requirements……Page 552
Rotary Motion……Page 557
Rotary Incremental Optical Encoders……Page 558
Accuracy of Rotary Incremental Encoder……Page 561
Rotary Absolute Optical Encoders……Page 562
Advantages of Absolute Encoders……Page 564
Resolvers……Page 565
Linear Encoders……Page 566
Other Linear Position Transducers……Page 567
Linear Variable Differential Transformers……Page 570
Linear Potentiometers……Page 574
Magnetostrictive Linear Position Sensors……Page 576
Sidebar……Page 581
Magnetic Properties Glossary……Page 582
Nuclear Radiation Thickness Gages……Page 583
Ultrasonic Thickness Gages……Page 585
Surface Texture Measurement……Page 586
Statistical Quality Control……Page 588
SQC Glossary of Terms……Page 589
System Approach to SQC……Page 597
SQC in the Process Industries……Page 598
Production Gaging Systems……Page 600
Electromechanical Limit Switches……Page 603
Inductive Proximity Sensors……Page 604
Wiegand-Effect Switches……Page 607
Magnetically Actuated Dry-Reed Switches……Page 608
Capacitive Proximity Sensors……Page 610
Ultrasonic Proximity Sensors……Page 612
Photoelectric Proximity Sensors……Page 615
Machine Vision……Page 622
Elements of Pattern Recognition……Page 623
MV Sensors……Page 624
MV Image Processing……Page 625
MV Applications……Page 626
Discrete-Piece Identification-Bar Coding……Page 627
Flat Web (Sheet) Measurements……Page 630
Flat Web (Sheet) Control……Page 631
Definition of Terms……Page 634
Tachometers……Page 636
DC Tachometers……Page 637
AC Tachometers……Page 638
Magnetic Speed Sensors……Page 640
Stroboscopic Tachometers……Page 643
Eddy-Current Tachometers……Page 645
Air and Gas Velocity Measurement……Page 646
Revolving-Vane Anemometers……Page 647
Constant-Temperature Thermal Anemometers……Page 648
Vibration Measurements……Page 649
Design Considerations……Page 650
Piezoelectric Accelerometers……Page 651
Variable Capacitive……Page 653
Conditioning Piezoresistive Transducers……Page 654
Environmental Effects……Page 655
Noncontact (Relative-Motion) Sensors……Page 656
Optical Vibrometers……Page 657
6. Real-Time Analytical Composition Measurements for Input to Process Control……Page 658
Changing Times and Technology……Page 663
Avoid Common Mistakes……Page 664
Trends in Analytical Instrumentation……Page 665
Approaches to Procuring Analytical Services……Page 666
Thermal Conductivity (and Gas Density)……Page 667
Electrical Conductivity……Page 670
Electrical Conductivity Measurement……Page 671
Temperature Compensation……Page 673
Sensor Selection and Installation……Page 676
Electrical Resistance……Page 677
Piezoelectric Crystal (H2O)……Page 678
pH Measurement: Theory and Reality……Page 680
Reference Electrode……Page 687
Cleaning Methods……Page 689
Problems and Causes……Page 692
Sources of pH Measurement Errors and Failures……Page 696
Selection……Page 697
Best Practices for pH Measurement Selection……Page 702
Installation……Page 704
Best Practices for pH Measurement Installation……Page 706
Maintenance……Page 707
Best Practices for pH Maintenance……Page 709
Key Points……Page 710
Rules of Thumb……Page 711
Turbidity……Page 712
Size/Shape……Page 713
Concentration……Page 714
90 Degree Scatter……Page 715
Surface Scatter……Page 716
Applications……Page 717
Specification……Page 719
Design……Page 720
Maintenance……Page 721
Refractive Index……Page 722
Critical Angle Measurement……Page 723
Specification……Page 724
Applications……Page 725
Installation Guidelines……Page 726
Introduction……Page 727
Beer’s Law-Concentration Versus Absorption……Page 728
UV/VIS Process Analyzers……Page 730
Sampling System Considerations for UV/VIS Analyzers……Page 732
X-RAY Fluorescence and Absorption……Page 735
Chemilluminescence……Page 736
Flame……Page 737
Thermionic……Page 738
Electron Capture……Page 739
Sample Extraction, Conditioning and Preparation for On-Line Analysis (Continuous Sample Flow Versus Discrete Sampling)……Page 740
Sampling System Functions……Page 741
Principles of Sample Handling……Page 742
Techniques of Sample Transfer……Page 745
Fundamentals of Sample Preparation……Page 746
Remote Discrete Sampling/Flow Injection/Multidimensional Sample Preparation……Page 747
Fast GC……Page 750
Multidimensional Sample Manipulation Techniques……Page 751
References……Page 756
Appendix A: Linear Column Component Separation Parameters……Page 759
Sample System and Analyzer Control……Page 761
Digital Versus Analog Sensors……Page 763
DSP Provides Detectors with Greater Precision at High Sensitivity……Page 764
The Many Advantages of DSP……Page 765
Information Display, Storage and Communication……Page 766
Example of Current System……Page 767
Housings and Ovens……Page 768
Calibration and Validation……Page 769
Permeation Devices……Page 770
Internal Standards……Page 771
Decisions to Change Analyzer Calibration Based on Statistical Quality-Control Charts……Page 772
Finding Probable Cause and Taking Action……Page 773
Statistical Process Control Utilizing Control Charts……Page 775
Oxygen Analyzer on a Furnace Stack Gas……Page 779
Propionic Acid in Acetic Acid……Page 780
Acrolein in Acrylonitrile……Page 781
Internal Reference Introduction for Performance Verification and Diagnostics……Page 782
References……Page 784
Internal Injection……Page 785
Water (H2O)……Page 787
Apparatus……Page 788
Procedures……Page 789
Stack Continuus Emission Monitoring Systems (CEMS)……Page 792
Operating Procedure……Page 793
Appendix II……Page 796
Air Oxidation of Hydrocarbons……Page 798
Air/Ammoxidation of Hydrocarbons……Page 799
Wide Boiling Range Liquid-Olefins and Alcohols……Page 801
Waste-Water Monitoring……Page 806
Lethal Service on Hydrogen Cyanide……Page 807
Sulfuric Acid Alkylation Process Control……Page 808
Waste-Gas Analysis/Hydrgen Generation Control……Page 809
Gasoline Blending……Page 811
7. Control Communications……Page 812
Data Signal Handling in Computerized Systems……Page 813
Signal Types……Page 814
Field Signals and Transducers……Page 815
Thermocouples……Page 817
Solid-State Temperature Sensors……Page 818
Sampled-Data Systems……Page 819
Analog-to-Digital Converters……Page 820
Amplifiers……Page 822
Single-Ended Versus Differential Signals……Page 823
Sample/Hold System……Page 824
Multiplexers……Page 825
Filtering……Page 826
Analog Signal Scaling……Page 828
Resistance Signals……Page 829
Current Conversion……Page 832
Surge Protection……Page 833
Digital-to-Analog Converters……Page 834
Pulse and Frequency Inputs and Outputs……Page 835
Digital Isolation……Page 836
Motor Control……Page 837
Noise and Wiring in Data Signal Handling……Page 838
Grounding and Shielding Principles……Page 840
Cable Types……Page 841
Troubleshooting Guide for Noise……Page 842
Cable-Length Guidelines……Page 843
Early Networking Concepts……Page 845
Early Data Highways……Page 847
Network Protocols……Page 849
Token Bus Protocol (IEEE 802.4)……Page 851
Communication Models and Layers……Page 852
Manufacturing Automation Protocol……Page 854
Open Systems……Page 855
Fieldbus……Page 856
Fiber-Optic Cables and Networks……Page 857
Characteristics of Optical Fibers and Cables……Page 858
Light Sources and Detectors……Page 861
8. Operator Interface……Page 862
Operator Interface – Design Rationale……Page 863
Habit Patterns……Page 864
Operator-Interface Geometry……Page 865
Alphanumeric Displays……Page 866
Keyboards……Page 869
Local Environment……Page 871
Process Control Tasks……Page 872
GOMS and NGOMSL……Page 873
Conclusions……Page 874
Pattern Recognition……Page 875
Spatial Representations……Page 876
Using a Predictor……Page 877
Impact of Automation……Page 878
Overestimating the Intelligence of the Computers……Page 879
Conclusions……Page 880
References……Page 881
The Graphics Interface……Page 883
“Conversational” Interactions……Page 886
Data Inputs……Page 887
Visual Display Devices……Page 890
Knowledge-Based Operator Training……Page 892
References……Page 897
Intelligent Alarms……Page 898
References……Page 900
9. Valves, Servos, Motors, and Robots……Page 901
Process Control Valves……Page 905
Sliding-Stem Valves……Page 907
Ball Valves……Page 910
Butterfly Valves……Page 911
Special Control Valves……Page 916
Control Valve Performance [1]……Page 921
Valve Type and Characterization……Page 922
General Selection Criteria……Page 923
Operating Temperature……Page 924
Selection of Materials……Page 925
Valve Packing [1]……Page 926
Flow Characteristic……Page 928
Pressure Drop……Page 929
Flow Capacity……Page 930
Valve Sizing……Page 932
Choked Flow……Page 933
Piping Considerations……Page 934
Power Source……Page 935
Control Functions……Page 936
Actuator Designs……Page 937
Actuator Sizing……Page 942
Summary of Actuator Selection Factors……Page 943
Valve Positioners and Controllers……Page 945
Electropneumatic Transducers……Page 946
Installation Techniques……Page 948
Summary Checklist……Page 952
Control Valve Troubleshooting……Page 954
Common Valve Maintenance Procedures……Page 959
Lapping the Seats……Page 960
Introduction……Page 963
Introduction……Page 964
Valve Hydrodynamics……Page 965
Cavity Mechanics……Page 966
Damage Mechanisms……Page 967
Cavitation Abatement Strategies……Page 968
Backpressure Devices……Page 969
Material Selection……Page 970
Special Trim Designs……Page 971
Background……Page 972
Cavitation Parameters and Coefficients……Page 973
References……Page 975
Noise Terminology……Page 976
Hydrodynamic Noise……Page 978
Aerodynamic Noise: IEC 534-8-3 [2]……Page 979
Path Treatment……Page 980
Introduction……Page 983
Types of Servo Motors……Page 984
General Characteristics and Comparison of Servo Motors……Page 986
Motor Parameters, Definitions, and Terminology……Page 991
Name-Plate Ratings……Page 992
Regulatory Considerations……Page 994
Speed Versus Torque Curves……Page 995
Thermal Ratings-Insulation Class……Page 997
Mounting……Page 999
Couplers……Page 1002
Bearings……Page 1003
Lubrication……Page 1005
Vibration……Page 1006
References……Page 1007
Reasons for Using a Variable Speed Drive……Page 1008
Semiconductor Switching Devices……Page 1009
Drive Control Technology……Page 1010
Solid-State dc Drives……Page 1011
ac Variable Frequency Drives……Page 1012
Induction Motor Variable Speed Drives……Page 1013
Medium-Voltage Variable Frequency Drives……Page 1015
The Load Commutated Inverter……Page 1017
Filter Commutated Thyristor Drive……Page 1019
Current-Fed GTO Inverter……Page 1020
Neutral-Point-Clamped Inverter……Page 1021
Cycloconverter……Page 1022
Comparison of Medium-Voltage Motor Drives……Page 1023
Basic Format of Robot……Page 1024
Degrees of Freedom……Page 1025
Dynamic Properties of Robots……Page 1028
Stability……Page 1029
Resolution and Repeatability……Page 1031
End-Effectors (Grippers)……Page 1033
Robot Programming and Control……Page 1035
Traditional Flapper-Nozzle Design……Page 1040
Introduction of New I/P Concepts……Page 1042
Electronic Feedback……Page 1044
10. Process Control Improvement……Page 1046
Model for Improving Process Control to Achieve Business Benefits……Page 1052
Analysis to Identify Control Improvements……Page 1053
Identify Key Product Properties and Process Variables……Page 1054
Identify the Need for Improved Measurement and Control……Page 1055
Statistical Metrics……Page 1056
Estimate Benefits for the Improvements……Page 1058
Yield Stake……Page 1059
Performance Metrics……Page 1060
Conclusions……Page 1061
Introduction……Page 1062
The Process as a Network……Page 1063
Operating Constraints, Uptime, Efficiency……Page 1064
Process Example – Paper Making……Page 1065
Process Control Strategy – Paper Machine Blending……Page 1067
Variability Examples……Page 1069
Diagnostic Principles……Page 1072
Time Series Analysis Tools……Page 1073
Sampling Theory – Time Series Data……Page 1074
Data Aliasing……Page 1075
Antialiasing Filters……Page 1077
Statistical Analysis……Page 1078
Stochastic Data Structures and Ideal Signals……Page 1079
Histogram……Page 1080
Spectral Analysis……Page 1081
Fast Fourier Transform……Page 1083
Power Spectrum……Page 1084
Spectral Analysis Plotting Methods……Page 1085
Spectral Analysis Windowing and Detrending……Page 1086
Cross-Correlation and Autocorrelation Functions……Page 1087
Identifying the Manufacturing Requirements – Fine Paper Machine Example……Page 1088
Ziegler-Nichols Tuning……Page 1089
Coordinated Loop Tuning Based on Operational Requirements……Page 1090
Rules of Thumb for Process Interaction……Page 1091
Rules of Thumb for Buffer Inventory Storage Level Control……Page 1092
Tuning Rules of Thumb for Uniform Manufacturing – Summary……Page 1093
Resonance and Bode’s Integral……Page 1094
Lambda Tuning Concept……Page 1095
Impact of Dead Time……Page 1096
Control Loop Robustness and Stability Margins……Page 1097
The Control Loop Performance-Robustness Envelope – Speed of Response versus Robustness……Page 1098
Identifying Plant Dynamics – Open-Loop Step Tests……Page 1099
Control Valve Dynamic Specification……Page 1101
Transmitter Deficiencies……Page 1102
Integrated Process Design and Control – Putting it all Together……Page 1103
Defining Terms and Nomenclature……Page 1104
References……Page 1105
Sample Preparation Methods and Hardware……Page 1106
Multiple-Wavelength Near-Infrared (NIR) Analyzer……Page 1107
Fourier Transform Infrared……Page 1108
Advantages of FTIR……Page 1109
Instrument Operation……Page 1110
Phase Correction……Page 1111
FTIR Interferometer Design [1]……Page 1112
Examples……Page 1114
The Measurement Principle……Page 1115
References……Page 1117
Dynamic Mass Analyzers……Page 1118
Ion Cyclotron Resonance Mass Analyzer……Page 1120
Ultraviolet/Visible Analyzers……Page 1122
Filter Isolation of Discrete Hollow Cathode Lamps [1]……Page 1123
Diode Array Process Spectrometer [2]……Page 1124
Raman Analyzers……Page 1125
Capabilities and Limitations……Page 1127
Examples of Raman Analyzer Applications……Page 1128
References……Page 1130
Rules of Thumb……Page 1132
Applications……Page 1133
Fundamentals of the Quantitative NMR……Page 1134
X-Ray Fluorescence……Page 1136
Monitoring Catalyst Depletion……Page 1137
Production of X-Ray Emission and Acquisition of XRF Spectra……Page 1139
X-Ray Excitation……Page 1140
Interaction of X Rays with Matter……Page 1142
X-Ray Detectors and Supporting Electronics……Page 1144
Microwave Spectroscopy……Page 1148
Instrument Bandwidth Differences……Page 1152
Guided Microwave Spectrometry……Page 1153
Interpretation of GMS Spectrums……Page 1156
Typical Software Approach to GMS Spectrum Measurement……Page 1157
Process Effects on Measurement……Page 1158
Prompt Gamma Neutron Activation……Page 1160
Signal Processing……Page 1161
Signal Normalization……Page 1162
Sensitivities……Page 1163
Instrumentation……Page 1164
References……Page 1166
Liquid Chromatography……Page 1167
Problems and Causes……Page 1169
Best Practices……Page 1178
Closed-Loop Tuning Method……Page 1183
Shortcut Tuning Method……Page 1184
Simplified Dahlin or Lambda Tuning Method……Page 1185
Best Practices to Improve Performance……Page 1188
What are Constrained Multivariable Predictive Control and Real-Time Optimization?……Page 1189
Basic Concepts of Constrained Multivariable Predictive Control……Page 1190
Basic Concepts of Real-Time Optimization?……Page 1194
Linear Systems……Page 1196
Process Representations……Page 1200
Predictive Control……Page 1201
Move Suppression……Page 1203
Extension to the Multivariable Case……Page 1204
Constraint Handling and Economic Optimization……Page 1205
Justification of Constrained Multivariable……Page 1210
Process Modeling Guidelines for Constrained Multivariable Predictive Control……Page 1211
Impulse Response Modeling……Page 1212
Time Series Analysis……Page 1214
Process Modeling Rules of Thumb……Page 1215
Constrained Multivariable Predictive Controller Tuning and Construction Guidelines……Page 1216
Real-Time Optimization Guidelines……Page 1217
Applications of Constrained Multivariable Predictive Control and Real-Time Optimization……Page 1218
Developments and Future Directions of Constrained Multivariable Predictive Control……Page 1219
References……Page 1220
Historical Development……Page 1221
Classification of Artificial Neural Networks……Page 1222
The Multilayer Error Backpropagation Perceptron……Page 1223
Pattern Recognition……Page 1225
Interpolation/Function Approximation……Page 1226
Parameter Estimation and System Identification……Page 1227
Control Applications……Page 1230
Applications of Artificial Neural Networks……Page 1233
Virtual Sensors……Page 1234
Neurocontrollers and Process Optimization……Page 1235
Other Artificial Neural Network Applications……Page 1237
Selection of an Artificial Neural Network Tool Practical Guidelines for Building Artificial Neural Networks……Page 1238
Recurrent Network Architectures……Page 1239
References……Page 1241
11. Standards Overview……Page 1245
Design Life Cycle……Page 1247
Hazard Analysis and Risk Assessment……Page 1248
Develop Safety Requirements Specification……Page 1249
Detailed SIS Design……Page 1250
Process Plant Design……Page 1251
Alarms and Operators……Page 1252
Logic Systems……Page 1253
Sensors……Page 1254
System Analysis……Page 1255
Notes for Table 1……Page 1256
References……Page 1257
Introduction……Page 1258
Physical Installation of a Fieldbus System……Page 1259
Utilizing Fieldbus Devices to Meet Application Requirements……Page 1265
Diagnostic Support of Foundation Fieldbus Devices……Page 1267
Control System Impact……Page 1271
Example Installations: Commercial Fieldbus Installations……Page 1273
Estimating Savings from Using Fieldbus Technology……Page 1274
Reduction of Terminations and Home Run Wiring……Page 1275
Reduction in the Number of I/O Cards……Page 1276
Summary……Page 1277
Best Practices in Applying Fieldbus……Page 1278
Introduction……Page 1279
Definitions……Page 1280
Recipe Types……Page 1281
Recipe Information Categories……Page 1282
Physical Model……Page 1284
Partitioning Equipment Entities……Page 1286
Procedural Control Model/Physical Model/Process Model Relationship……Page 1287
Recipe Procedure/Equipment Control Separation……Page 1288
Control Recipe Procedure/Equipment Control Linking……Page 1290
Process and Control Engineering……Page 1291
What is Needed to Define Batch Control……Page 1293
Equipment Entity Details……Page 1295
Summary……Page 1300
Key Points……Page 1301
References……Page 1302
Front Matter……Page 1303
A……Page 1306
B……Page 1307
C……Page 1308
D……Page 1311
E……Page 1312
F……Page 1313
G……Page 1314
I……Page 1315
L……Page 1316
M……Page 1318
N……Page 1320
P……Page 1321
R……Page 1325
S……Page 1326
T……Page 1328
U……Page 1329
W……Page 1330
Z……Page 1331
Table of Contents……Page 1332