Modifying Lipids for Use in Foods

Frank D. Gunstone0-8493-9148-2, 1-84569-168-7, 1-85573-971-2, 978-0-8493-9148-4

Oils and fats have a major impact on the nutritional and sensory quality of many foods. Food manufacturers must often modify lipid components or ingredients in food to achieve the right balance of physical, chemical, and nutritional properties. Modifying Lipids for Use in Food reviews the range of lipids available, techniques for their modification, and how they can be used in food products. Part One reviews vegetable, animal, marine, and microbial sources of lipids and their structure. The second part of the book discusses the range of techniques for modifying lipids such as hydrogenation, fractionation, and interesterification. Finally, Part Three considers the wide range of applications of modified lipids in such areas as dairy and bakery products, confectionary and frying oils. With its distinguished editor and international range of contributors, Modifying Lipids for Use in Food will be a standard reference for dairy and other manufacturers using modified lipids.

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Table of contents :
Front Matter……Page 1
Contributor Contact Details……Page 3
Table of Contents……Page 0
1.1 Introduction……Page 6
1.2 What Properties are Desired?……Page 7
1.3 Methods of Modifying Oils and Fats……Page 9
1.4 Technological Methods……Page 10
1.5 Biological Methods……Page 11
1.6 References……Page 13
2.1 Introduction……Page 15
2.2 Major Vegetable Sources of Food Lipids……Page 17
2.3 Minor Vegetable Sources of Food Lipids……Page 26
2.4 Extraction and Uses……Page 29
2.6 Sources of Further Information and Advice……Page 30
2.7 References……Page 31
3.1 Introduction……Page 32
3.2 Animal Fats……Page 33
3.3 Milk Fat……Page 48
3.4 Future Trends……Page 54
3.5 Sources of Further Information and Advice……Page 55
3.6 References……Page 56
4.1 Introduction……Page 60
4.2 Fish Oils, their Main Characteristics and Composition……Page 62
4.3 Production of Fish Oil……Page 68
4.4 Fish Oil Stability and Protection……Page 72
4.5 Commercial Fish Oils……Page 74
4.6 Fish Oil Application……Page 78
4.7 References……Page 80
5.1 Introduction……Page 84
5.2 Oleaginous Micro-organisms, Fatty Acids and Lipid Accumulation……Page 85
5.3 Large-scale Cultivation of Oleaginous Micro-organisms, Costs, Oil Extraction and Refinement……Page 88
5.4 The Production of an SCO Rich in gamma-linolenic Acid (Oil of Javanicus)……Page 94
5.5 Production of Arachidonic Acid-SCO……Page 97
5.6 Production of DHA-rich SCOs……Page 100
5.7 Prospects for Other PUFA-SCOs……Page 107
5.8 Future Trends……Page 109
5.9 References……Page 113
6.1 Introduction……Page 118
6.2 Methods to Measure Compositional Attributes……Page 119
6.3 Methods of Measuring Characteristics of Edible Oils……Page 123
6.4 Future Trends……Page 128
6.6 References……Page 129
7.2 Partial Hydrogenation……Page 132
7.3 Autoxidation, Photo-oxidation, and Antioxidants……Page 134
7.4 Reactions of Esters and Other Acyl Compounds……Page 141
7.5 Metabolism of Linoleic and Linolenic Acids……Page 142
7.6 Sources of Further Information and Advice……Page 144
7.7 References……Page 145
8.1 History and Introduction……Page 146
8.2 Crystallization and Melting……Page 147
8.3 Mechanical Properties and Structure……Page 156
8.4 Fat Crystal Networks and Microstructure……Page 159
8.5 Structuring Fat Crystal Network Using Processing……Page 166
8.6 Future Trends……Page 169
8.7 References……Page 170
9.1 Introduction……Page 175
9.2 Trans Fatty Acid Contents of Food Oils……Page 176
9.3 Formulation of Food Oils by Hydrogenation (Soybean-based)……Page 178
9.4 Source Oils for Trans Fatty Acids……Page 187
9.5 Mechanism of Hydrogenation/Isomerization……Page 189
9.6 Future Trends……Page 192
9.7 Alternatives to Hydrogenation: Low and Zero Trans Fats……Page 194
9.8 References……Page 196
10.2 Different Fractionation Techniques……Page 203
10.3 Crystallization of Fats……Page 208
10.4 The Dry Fractionation Process……Page 210
10.5 Applications……Page 216
10.6 Future Trends……Page 229
10.7 References……Page 231
11.1 Introduction……Page 236
11.2 Interesterification in General Practice: an Introduction of Potential Reactions and Applications……Page 237
11.3 Typical Interesterification in Lipid Modification……Page 241
11.4 Remarks and Future Trends……Page 265
11.5 Sources of Further Information and Advice……Page 267
11.7 References……Page 268
12.1 Introduction……Page 275
12.2 General Perspective……Page 276
12.3 Plant Breeding……Page 280
12.4 Oil Crop Modification……Page 285
12.5 Transgenic Oil Crop Modification……Page 291
12.6 Plant Lipid Manipulation in the 21st Century……Page 295
12.7 Future Trends……Page 301
12.8 Sources of Further Information and Advice……Page 302
12.9 References……Page 304
13.1 Introduction……Page 308
13.2 Motivation for Bio-modification of Animal Lipids……Page 309
13.3 Specific Bioactive Fatty Acids in Animal Products……Page 310
13.4 Genetic Effects on the Composition of Animal Lipids……Page 312
13.6 Methods of Modifying Animal Fats by Changes in Diet……Page 316
13.7 Technological Modifications……Page 326
13.8 Modified Animal Fats: The Relevance of Fortifying Functional Fatty Acids in Animal Lipids……Page 329
13.9 Future Trends……Page 330
13.11 References……Page 331
14.1 Introduction……Page 338
14.2 Concentration of n-3 PUFA by Non-enzymatic Methods……Page 339
14.3 Concentration of n-3 PUFA by Lipase……Page 341
14.4 TAG Concentrates of n-3 PUFA……Page 349
14.5 Positionally Labeled Structured TAG Derived from Fish Oil……Page 354
14.6 MLM type Structured TAG Comprising Pure n-3 PUFA and MCFA……Page 356
14.7 Industrial Aspects and Future Trends……Page 362
14.8 References……Page 365
15.1 Introduction……Page 371
15.2 Separation and Purification of Phospholipids……Page 374
15.3 Modification of Phospholipids……Page 376
15.4 Phospholipid Functionality and Uses in Food Processing……Page 385
15.6 Sources of Further Information and Advice……Page 388
15.8 References……Page 389
16.1 Introduction……Page 394
16.2 Food Emulsions……Page 395
16.3 Lipid Modification and Processing……Page 401
16.4 Factors Affecting Lipid Emulsions……Page 420
16.5 Future Trends……Page 426
16.7 References……Page 427
17.1 Introduction……Page 430
17.2 Requirements for Trans-free Fat Compositions……Page 437
17.3 Production of Trans-free Fats and their Application……Page 438
17.5 Future Trends……Page 442
17.7 References……Page 443
18.1 Introduction……Page 445
18.2 Fat Substitute Chemistry……Page 449
18.3 Food Applications……Page 454
18.4 Toxicology……Page 456
18.5 Future Trends……Page 457
18.6 References……Page 458
19.1 Introduction……Page 463
19.2 Filled and Imitation Dairy Products……Page 464
19.3 Changing Milk Fat Composition……Page 479
19.4 References……Page 483
20.1 Introduction: Cocoa Butter and the Use of Modified Lipids in Chocolate and Confectionery……Page 489
20.2 Preparation and Use of Alternatives to Cocoa Butter……Page 490
20.3 Improving the Functionality of Chocolate and Confectionery with Modified Lipids……Page 504
20.4 Future Trends……Page 513
20.5 Sources of Further Information and Advice……Page 514
20.6 References……Page 515
21.2 The Frying Process……Page 518
21.3 Chemical Changes of Fats and Oils at Frying Temperature……Page 521
21.4 Factors Affecting Quality of Frying Oils……Page 524
21.5 Modified Frying Oils……Page 527
21.6 Quality Control and Safety of Fresh Frying Oil……Page 531
21.7 Future Trends……Page 535
21.9 References……Page 536
22.2 Speciality Oils and Fats……Page 540
22.3 Health Benefits and Claims for Speciality Oils……Page 541
22.4 Dietary Fatty Acids and Health Effects……Page 542
22.6 Use of MUFA and PUFA Oils in Food Applications……Page 546
22.7 Use of Spice Extracts in Gourmet Oils……Page 554
22.8 Use of Natural Antioxidants……Page 555
22.9 Effect of Dietary Fatty Acids in Poultry and Meat……Page 556
22.10 Structured Lipids……Page 559
22.12 Conclusion and Future Trends……Page 561
22.14 References……Page 562
23.1 Introduction……Page 568
23.2 Uses and Applications of SCOs Rich in Arachidonic Acid and Docosahexaenoic Acid……Page 569
23.3 Applications of ARA-SCO and DHA-SCO for Inclusion in Infant Formulae……Page 571
23.4 Applications of DHA-rich Oils for Supplementation of Adult Diets……Page 575
23.5 Other Applications of DHA-rich SCOs and Biomass……Page 577
23.6 Safety Assessments of SCOs……Page 579
23.7 References……Page 583
24.1 Introduction……Page 588
24.2 Food Ingredients and Functional Foods……Page 589
24.3 Dietary Supplements……Page 595
24.4 Pharmaceuticals……Page 599
24.5 Commercial Fish Oils for Human Consumption and Marine PUFA Concentrates……Page 600
24.6 New Types of Concentrates and Future Trends……Page 601
24.7 References……Page 602
C……Page 604
E……Page 605
H……Page 606
N……Page 607
P……Page 608
T……Page 609
Z……Page 610