Mohammad Ilyas, Imad Mahgoub0849319684, 9780849319686
The Handbook of Sensor Networks: Compact Wireless and Wired Sensing Systems captures the current state of sensor networks and deals with particular technical challenges such as software protocols, data processing, security, and limited power sources for remote sensors. Other topics include architecture, artificial perception, location management, dynamic power management, data funneling, and applications such as tracking, biological data acquisition, industrial sensor networking, security measures, and energy-saving techniques.
A selection of highly respected professionals and researchers from leading institutions worldwide contribute their expertise to assemble a referential set of 40 brand new, in-depth articles that cover various aspects of sensor networks, from basic concepts to research-grade material, including future directions.
Table of contents :
Handbook of Sensor Networks: Compact Wireless and Wired Sensing Systems……Page 1
Preface……Page 3
Editors……Page 5
Contributors……Page 6
Contents……Page 10
1.1 Introduction……Page 20
Contents……Page 0
1.2.2.1 General Engineering……Page 21
1.2.2.4 Military Applications……Page 22
1.3 Technical Challenges……Page 23
1.3.2 Power Supply……Page 24
1.3.4 Capacity/Throughput……Page 25
1.3.6 Channel Access and Scheduling……Page 26
1.3.7.1 Wireless Link……Page 27
1.3.7.2 Energy Consumption……Page 28
1.3.9 Quality of Service……Page 29
1.4 Concluding Remarks……Page 30
References……Page 31
2.1 Introduction……Page 34
2.1.1 Geolocation and Identification of Mobile Targets……Page 35
2.1.2 Long-Term Architecture……Page 36
2.2 Goals for Real-Time Distributed Network Computing for Sensor Data Fusion……Page 38
2.3.1.1 Terrestrial Networks……Page 39
2.3.1.2 Wireless Networks……Page 40
2.3.3 Guaranteeing Computational Resources……Page 41
2.3.3.1 Avoiding Processor Interruption……Page 42
2.3.3.2 Working through System Faults……Page 43
2.5 Network Resource Management……Page 44
2.5.1 Graph Generator……Page 45
2.5.2 Metrics Object……Page 46
2.5.3 Graph Search……Page 47
2.5.7 Topology Database……Page 48
2.6 Experimental Results……Page 49
References……Page 52
3.1 Introduction……Page 55
3.2 Management Challenges……Page 56
3.3 Management Dimensions……Page 57
3.3.1 Dimensions for WSN Management……Page 58
3.3.2.2 Service Management……Page 59
3.3.2.3 Network Management……Page 60
3.3.2.5 Network Element……Page 61
3.3.3.1 Configuration……Page 62
3.3.3.2 Sensing……Page 63
3.3.3.4 Communication……Page 64
3.3.3.5 Maintenance……Page 65
3.3.4.1 Configuration Management……Page 66
3.3.4.3 Performance Management……Page 67
3.3.4.5 Accounting Management……Page 68
3.4.1 Management Services, Functions, and Models……Page 69
3.4.2.2 WSN Agents……Page 71
3.4.2.3 Management Application……Page 73
3.4.3.1 Static Information……Page 75
3.4.3.2 Dynamic Information……Page 77
3.4.4 Physical Architecture……Page 78
3.6 Conclusion……Page 79
References……Page 80
4.1 Introduction……Page 83
4.3 Aspects of Efficient Sensor Network Applications……Page 84
4.4 Need for Sensor Network Programmability……Page 85
4.5.2 Active Sensor Model……Page 86
4.5.3 Active Networks – Mobile Agents……Page 87
4.6.1 Directed Diffusion with In-Network Processing……Page 88
4.6.4 SQTL……Page 89
4.6.5 Smart Messages – Spatial Programming……Page 90
4.6.7 SensorWare……Page 91
4.6.9 DFuse……Page 93
References……Page 94
5.1 Introduction……Page 96
5.2.1 Micromachine Fabrication Techniques……Page 97
5.2.2 Highly Integrated Processes……Page 98
5.3.1 Selection Criteria……Page 99
5.4.1 RF Communication……Page 100
5.4.2 Optical Communication……Page 103
5.5.1 Energy Storage……Page 105
5.6 Packaging……Page 107
5.7 Systems……Page 108
5.8 Conclusion……Page 110
References……Page 111
6.1 Introduction……Page 115
6.1.1 Motivation and Design Issues in WSN Routing……Page 117
6.1.2 Routing Challenges in WSNs……Page 118
6.2.1.1 Sequential Assignment Routing (SAR)……Page 120
6.2.1.2 Directed Diffusion……Page 121
6.2.1.4 Coherent and Noncoherent Processing……Page 124
6.2.2.1 LEACH Protocol……Page 125
6.2.2.3 Threshold-Sensitive Energy-Efficient Protocols (TEEN and APTEEN)……Page 127
6.2.2.5 Fixed-Size Cluster Routing……Page 129
6.2.2.6 Virtual Grid Architecture Routing……Page 130
6.2.2.7 Hierarchical Power-Aware Routing……Page 131
6.2.3 Adaptive Routing……Page 132
6.2.4 Multipath Routing……Page 134
6.3 Routing in WSNs: Future Directions……Page 135
6.4 Conclusions……Page 136
References……Page 137
7.1 Introduction……Page 139
7.2 Background……Page 140
7.3.1 Sensor Fusion……Page 141
7.3.2 Time Concept……Page 142
7.3.5 Passive and Active Perception……Page 144
7.3.7 Human-Computer Interaction……Page 145
7.4.1 Electronic Head……Page 146
7.4.2 Fire Indication Application……Page 149
References……Page 150
8.2 Sensor Network Applications……Page 152
8.2.2 Tasking Applications……Page 153
8.3 Functional Architecture for Sensor Networks……Page 154
8.4.1 SINA (Sensor Information Networking Architecture)……Page 155
8.4.1.2 Information Gathering Methods……Page 156
8.4.1.3 Sensor Network Programming Languages……Page 157
8.4.1.4 SEE (Sensor Execution Environment)……Page 158
8.4.1.5 Architectural View of SINA……Page 159
8.4.2.1 TopDisc Mechanism……Page 160
8.4.2.2 Architectural View of TopDisc……Page 162
References……Page 163
9.1 Introduction……Page 165
9.2.1 Military Applications……Page 166
9.2.2 Environment Detection and Monitoring……Page 167
9.2.4 Medical Care……Page 168
9.2.7 Interactive Surroundings……Page 169
9.3 Classification of WSNs……Page 170
9.4.1 Characteristics……Page 171
9.4.2 Technical Challenges and Requirements……Page 172
9.4.3 Design Objectives and Directions……Page 173
9.5.1.1 Cheap, Compact, Low-Power Wireless Sensor Nodes……Page 175
9.5.1.2 Low Duty Cycle Electronics……Page 176
9.5.2.1 Sensor Deployment Strategies……Page 177
9.5.2.2 Dynamic Power Optimization at the Nodal Level……Page 178
9.5.2.3.2 Clustering and Hierarchical Architectures……Page 180
9.5.2.3.4 Collaborative Signal and Information Processing (CSIP) and Data Aggregation……Page 183
9.5.3 Software Development……Page 184
9.5.3.3 Application Programming Interface (API)……Page 185
9.6 Conclusions and Considerations for Future Research……Page 186
References……Page 187
10.1 Introduction……Page 193
10.2 Industrial Sensor Fitting Communication Protocols……Page 194
10.2.2 ASI……Page 195
10.2.4 Measurement Bus……Page 196
10.2.5 Controller Area Network (CAN)……Page 197
10.2.6 LonWorks……Page 198
10.2.8 Bitbus (Updated as IEEE 1118)……Page 199
10.2.9 Foundation Fieldbus……Page 200
10.2.11 Profibus PA……Page 201
10.2.12 Microwire……Page 202
10.3.2 IEEE 1451.2……Page 203
10.3.4 IEEE P1451.4……Page 204
10.4.2 IEEE 1451.1 Networking……Page 205
10.4.4 Internet Coupling Architectures……Page 206
10.5 Industrial Network Interconnections……Page 207
10.5.2 Actuator-Sensor-Interface Standard……Page 208
10.5.3 Nine-Bit Interprocessor Protocol……Page 209
10.5.3.2 ASIÒASI Coupler: Fragmenting Gateway……Page 210
10.5.3.3 BitbusÒNBIP Coupler: Router……Page 211
10.5.3.4 BitbusÒNBIP Coupler: Bridge……Page 212
10.6.1 Problem Definition……Page 213
10.6.4 Communication Maintenance……Page 214
10.6.5 Network Routing……Page 215
Acknowledgments……Page 216
References……Page 217
11.1 Introduction……Page 218
11.2 Tagging Whales……Page 219
11.3 The Tag Sensors……Page 220
11.4 The SWIM Networks……Page 223
11.5 The Information Propagation Model……Page 224
11.6 Simulating the Delay……Page 226
11.7 Calculating Storage Requirements……Page 229
11.7.1 Single-Packet Storage Methods……Page 230
11.7.2 Multiple-Packet Storage Methods……Page 231
References……Page 234
12.2 Motivation and Objectives……Page 235
12.3 SNs – Global View and Requirements……Page 237
12.4.2 Storage……Page 238
12.4.4 Sensors……Page 239
12.4.5 Radio……Page 240
12.5.1 Berkeley Mote Node……Page 242
12.5.2 UCLA Medusa MK-2 Node……Page 243
12.5.4 Sensor-Centric Design: Light Compass……Page 245
12.6 Wireless SNs as Embedded Systems……Page 247
Acknowledgment……Page 250
References……Page 251
13.1 Introduction……Page 254
13.2.1 Cost-Effectiveness……Page 256
13.2.3 Scalability……Page 257
13.3.1 Small Sensor Nodes……Page 258
13.3.2 Large Sensor Nodes……Page 260
13.4.1 Sensing……Page 261
13.4.2 Processing……Page 262
13.5.1 Engineered Networks……Page 263
13.5.3 Clustering Mechanisms……Page 264
13.5.3.1 Forming a Connected Backbone……Page 265
13.5.3.2 Forming a Hierarchical Communication and Processing Structure……Page 266
13.6.1 Routing in a Hierarchy……Page 268
13.6.2.1 Routing with Hierarchical Addresses……Page 269
13.6.2.2 Mapping Unique IDs to Hierarchical Addresses……Page 270
13.7 Drawbacks of Tiered Architectures……Page 271
References……Page 272
14.1 Motivation……Page 276
14.2 Background……Page 277
14.3 Issues for Topology Design……Page 278
14.3.3 Five-Neighbors WSN……Page 279
14.3.4 Six-Neighbors WSN……Page 280
14.3.7 Six-Neighbors for Three Dimensions……Page 281
14.4 Assumptions……Page 283
14.4.1 Calculation of Power Usage for Each Path……Page 284
14.5.1.2 Edge Routing……Page 285
14.5.1.4 Fixed Number of Transmissions……Page 286
14.5.2 Three-Dimensional Analysis……Page 287
14.6 Directional Source-Aware Routing Protocol (DSAP)……Page 288
14.7.1 Two-Dimension Analysis……Page 290
14.7.2 Three-Dimension Analysis……Page 293
14.8 Summary……Page 294
References……Page 295
15.1 Introduction……Page 296
15.2 Characteristics of Wireless Sensor Networks……Page 297
15.3 Architecture of Sensor Networks……Page 298
15.3.1 Functional Layers of Wireless Sensor Networks……Page 299
15.3.3 Communication Mode-Based Sensor Network Classification……Page 300
15.3.4 Data Fusion Architectures……Page 301
15.4.1 Performance Metrics of Dynamic Wireless Sensor Network……Page 302
15.4.2.2 Energy and Battery Models……Page 304
15.4.2.3 Connectivity Modeling and Topology Optimization……Page 305
15.4.2.4 Deployment and Sensing Coverage Models……Page 307
15.5 Concluding Remarks……Page 308
References……Page 309
16.1 Introduction……Page 312
16.2.1 Sensor Network Applications……Page 313
16.2.2.3 Sensor Query and Data Dissemination Protocol (SQDDP)……Page 314
16.3 Localization Protocols……Page 315
16.4 Time Synchronization Protocols……Page 316
16.5.1 Event-to-Sink Transport……Page 318
16.5.2 Sink-to-Sensors Transport……Page 319
16.6 Network Layer Protocols……Page 320
16.7 Data Link Layer Protocols……Page 322
16.7.1 Medium Access Control……Page 323
16.7.2 Error Control……Page 324
References……Page 325
17.1 Introduction……Page 328
17.2 A Protocol Suite for Sensor Networks……Page 329
17.2.2 Enforcement of Velocity Constraints……Page 330
17.2.3 Entity-Aware Transport……Page 331
17.3 A Sensor-Network Programming Model……Page 332
17.4 Related Work……Page 333
References……Page 335
18.1 Introduction……Page 337
18.2.1 Necessity of Resource Efficiency……Page 338
18.2.3 Energy Consumption in WSNs……Page 339
18.2.3.3 Communicating Energy……Page 340
18.3 Cross-Layer Communication Protocol Stack for WSNs……Page 341
18.4 Energy-Efficient MAC Protocols……Page 342
18.4.2.1 Centralized MAC Protocols……Page 343
18.4.2.2 Distributed MAC Protocols……Page 344
18.4.2.3 Hybrid MAC Protocols……Page 345
18.5.1 Classification of Network Layer Protocols……Page 346
18.5.2 Energy-Efficient Data Delivery Protocols……Page 347
18.5.2.1 Energy-Efficient Information Collection (E2IC) Protocols……Page 348
18.5.2.2 Energy-Efficient Information Dissemination (E2ID) Protocols……Page 351
18.5.3.2 Collaborative Signal and Information Processing (CSIP)……Page 352
18.6 Concluding Remarks……Page 353
References……Page 354
19.1.1 Sensor Coverage Problem……Page 359
19.1.2 Design Choices……Page 360
19.2.1 Energy-Efficient Random Coverage……Page 362
19.2.2 Connected Random Coverage……Page 364
19.2.4 Node Coverage as Approximation……Page 365
19.3.2 Deterministic Point Coverage……Page 366
19.4.2 Barrier Coverage Model 2……Page 367
Acknowledgment……Page 368
References……Page 369
20.1 Introduction……Page 371
20.2.1.1 Location in Space and Time……Page 372
20.2.1.2 Relative Positioning……Page 373
20.2.1.3 Absolute Positioning……Page 374
20.2.3.2 Triangulation……Page 375
20.2.3.3 Multilateration……Page 376
20.2.4 General Navigation Solutions Using Trilateration……Page 377
20.2.5.1 Global Positioning System……Page 378
20.2.5.4 The Lighthouse Location System……Page 379
20.3.1 The Wireless Sensor Network Difference……Page 380
20.3.2.1 Using the Network Topology for Positioning……Page 382
20.3.2.2 Range Errors and Quantization……Page 383
20.3.2.3 Influence of Border Effects and Filtering……Page 385
20.3.3.1 Cooperative Ranging……Page 386
20.3.3.3 Robust Start-Up Positioning Scheme……Page 387
20.3.3.4 Precision On-Demand Position Updates……Page 389
20.3.4 Emerging and Open Issues……Page 390
References……Page 391
21.1 Introduction……Page 394
21.2.1 ToA, TDoA, and AoA……Page 395
21.2.2 Positioning by Signal Strength……Page 396
21.3.1 Trilateration……Page 397
21.3.2 Multilateration……Page 398
21.3.3 Pattern Matching……Page 399
21.3.3.2 Probability-Based Algorithms……Page 400
21.3.4 Location Tracking……Page 401
21.3.5 Network-Based Tracking……Page 402
21.4.1 Active Badge and Bat……Page 403
21.4.4 CSIE/NCTU Indoor Tour Guide……Page 404
References……Page 405
22.1 Introduction……Page 407
22.3.2 System Requirements……Page 408
22.4.1 The Information Filter……Page 409
22.4.3 Channel Filter and Communication Management……Page 410
22.4.4.2 Integrated Ornstein-Uhlenbeck Process……Page 411
22.4.5.2 Broadcast with Hybrid CI/IF Update……Page 412
22.4.5.3 Dynamic Tree Structure……Page 413
22.5.1 Vision Sensors……Page 415
22.5.2 Radar Sensors……Page 417
22.6.1 Navigation Filter……Page 419
22.6.3 Interplatform and Interprocess Communication……Page 420
References……Page 421
23.1 Introduction……Page 423
23.2 Model Definition……Page 425
23.3.1 Preliminaries……Page 427
23.3.2.1 Energy-Efficient Summing Protocol……Page 428
23.3.2.2 Fault-Tolerant Energy-Efficient Summing Protocol……Page 431
23.3.3 WSNs with Dynamic Transmission Range……Page 432
23.4 Identifying Faulty Nodes in Wireless Sensor Networks……Page 433
23.4.2 Locating Faulty Sensors in Multihop WSNs……Page 434
References……Page 437
24.1 Sensor Networks: Organization and Processing……Page 440
24.1.1 Evolution of Sensor Systems……Page 441
24.2 Architectures for Sensor Integration……Page 442
24.2.1.1.1 Merit Factor in a Parallel System……Page 444
24.2.1.2 Parameterization of Parallel and Hierarchical Architectures……Page 445
24.2.1.3.1 Parallel System……Page 447
24.2.1.3.2 Hierarchical System……Page 448
24.2.2.1 Regions of Interest……Page 451
24.2.2.2 Data Clustering……Page 455
24.3 Example of Architecture Evaluation in High-Energy Physics……Page 457
References……Page 458
25.1 Introduction……Page 459
25.2.1 Traditional Network Architectures……Page 460
25.2.2 Mobile Agent-Based Distributed Sensor Networks……Page 461
25.2.3 Data Integration Methods……Page 462
25.3.1.1 Probabilistic Deployment……Page 463
25.3.2 Optimal Sensor Deployment Using Genetic Algorithm……Page 464
25.4.1 Mobile Agent Routing Using the Genetic Algorithm……Page 466
25.4.2 Connectivity through Time for Mobile Wireless Networks……Page 468
25.4.3.1 Spin Glass Model……Page 472
25.4.3.3 Ant Pheromone Model……Page 473
References……Page 474
26.1 Introduction……Page 476
26.2 The Cooperative Computing Model……Page 478
26.3.3 Virtual Machine……Page 479
26.4 Smart Messages……Page 480
26.4.1.3 Migration……Page 481
26.5 Programming Interface……Page 482
26.6.1 Cost of SM Migration……Page 483
26.6.1.2 SM Transfer……Page 484
26.6.2 Cost of Tag Space Operations……Page 486
26.7.1 SPIN Using Smart Messages……Page 487
26.7.2 Directed Diffusion Using Smart Messages……Page 488
26.8 Simulation Results……Page 489
26.9 Related Work……Page 490
References……Page 493
27.1 Introduction……Page 495
27.2.1 Multiple Shutdown States……Page 496
27.2.2 Sensor Node Architecture……Page 497
27.2.3 Sleep State Transition Policy……Page 498
27.3.1 Variable Voltage Processing……Page 499
27.4.1 DVS Circuit……Page 500
27.4.2 Idle Power Management Hooks……Page 502
27.4.3 Processor Power Modes……Page 503
27.4.4 OS Architecture……Page 505
27.5 Results……Page 506
References……Page 509
28.1 Introduction……Page 510
28.2 Unique Characteristics of Wireless Sensor Networks……Page 511
28.2.1 Why Are MAC Layer Design Issues Important?……Page 512
28.3.1.1 Operation……Page 513
28.3.1.3 Merits, Drawbacks, and Implications for WSNs……Page 514
28.3.2.1 Operation……Page 515
28.3.3.1 Operation……Page 516
28.3.4.1 Operation……Page 517
28.3.4.2 Merits, Drawbacks, and Implications for WSNs……Page 518
28.4 Design Challenges for Wireless Sensor Networks……Page 519
28.4.1 Why Existing Methods for Wireless ad hoc Networks Cannot Be Used……Page 520
28.4.2 Communication and Application Types in Sensor Networks……Page 521
28.5 Medium Access Protocols for Wireless Sensor Networks……Page 522
28.5.1.2 Coordinated Sleeping……Page 523
28.5.1.4 Synchronization……Page 524
28.5.2.1 Operation……Page 525
28.5.3.1 Operation……Page 527
28.5.4 Power-Efficient and Delay-Aware Medium-Access Protocol for Sensor Networks ( PEDAMACS)……Page 529
28.5.4.1 Operation……Page 530
28.6 Open Issues……Page 531
References……Page 533
29.1 Introduction……Page 535
29.2.1 CPU-Centric DPM……Page 536
29.2.2 I/O-Centric DPM……Page 537
29.4.1 The LEDF Algorithm……Page 538
29.4.2.1 Hardware Platform……Page 539
29.4.2.2 Software Architecture……Page 540
29.4.3 Experimental Results……Page 541
29.5.1 Device Scheduling for Two-State I/O Devices……Page 545
29.5.1.1 Online Scheduling of Two-State Devices: Algorithm LEDES……Page 547
29.5.2 Low-Energy Device Scheduling of Multistate I/O Devices……Page 548
29.5.3 Experimental Results……Page 551
29.6 Energy-Aware Communication……Page 553
29.6.1 Detection Probability Table……Page 554
29.6.2 Score-Based Ranking……Page 555
29.6.4 Energy Evaluation Model for Target Localization in Wireless Sensor Networks……Page 558
29.6.4.1 Refined Energy Evaluation Model……Page 560
29.6.6.1 Case Study……Page 562
29.7 Conclusions……Page 566
References……Page 567
30.1 Introduction……Page 569
30.2.1 Application Layer……Page 570
30.2.3 Data Link Layer……Page 571
30.3 Routing Protocol Characteristics and Related Work……Page 572
30.5 Energy-Aware Routing……Page 573
30.5.1 Setup Phase……Page 574
30.6 Simulations……Page 575
30.7 Data Funneling……Page 578
30.7.1 Setup Phase……Page 580
30.8 Conclusion……Page 581
References……Page 582
31.1 Introduction……Page 584
31.2.1 Security-Related Properties……Page 585
31.2.3 Mobile Code……Page 586
31.3 Security Architectures……Page 587
31.3.1 Cell-Based WSNs……Page 588
31.3.2 Ad Hoc Sensor Networks……Page 591
31.4.1 Principle of Minimal Generalization……Page 594
31.4.2 Privacy of Location Information……Page 595
References……Page 598
32.1 Introduction……Page 602
32.1.2 Denial of Service……Page 603
32.1.4 Sensor Network Vulnerability……Page 605
32.2.1 Attacker……Page 606
32.2.2.3 Technical Capability……Page 608
32.2.3.1 Type of Service……Page 609
32.2.4.2 Logical……Page 610
32.3 Vulnerabilities and Defenses……Page 611
32.3.2 Tampering……Page 612
32.3.5 Selective Forwarding……Page 613
32.3.7 Sinkholes……Page 614
32.3.10 Flooding……Page 615
32.3.12 Algorithmic Complexity Attack……Page 616
32.4 Related Work……Page 617
32.5 Conclusion……Page 618
References……Page 619
33.1 Introduction……Page 622
33.3 Existing Work on Reliability Support……Page 623
33.5 Architecture of a Distributed Sensor System……Page 624
33.6 Directed Diffusion Network……Page 625
33.7.1 Reconfigurable Smart Nodes……Page 626
33.7.2 Distributed Lookup Server……Page 627
33.7.4 Adaptation Server……Page 628
33.8.2 Connectors……Page 629
33.8.3 Sensor Task Structures……Page 630
33.9.1 Consistent Schedule……Page 631
33.10 Conclusions……Page 632
References……Page 633
34.1 Introduction……Page 635
34.2 Game-Theoretic Models of Reliable and Length Energy- Constrained Routing……Page 636
34.2.1 Reliable Routing in Geographically Routed Sensor Networks……Page 637
34.2.2 Distributed Implementation of Length-Constrained RQR……Page 638
34.3.1 Data Transmission Phase……Page 639
34.3.2 Path Determination Phase……Page 640
34.4 Performance Evaluation……Page 641
34.4.2 Results and Analysis……Page 642
References……Page 644
35.1 Introduction……Page 646
35.2 Sensor Network Formulation……Page 647
35.2.2 Two Optimization Criteria……Page 648
35.3 Fault-Tolerant Interval Estimation without Knowledge of Confidence Degrees……Page 649
35.4.1 Combined Intervals……Page 650
35.4.2 Combined Confidence Degrees……Page 651
35.5 Fault-Tolerant Interval Estimation with Knowledge of Confidence Degrees……Page 654
35.7.1 Stability……Page 656
35.7.2 Sensor Interval Endpoint Tolerance……Page 657
References……Page 661
36.1.1 Motivation……Page 663
36.1.2 Objectives……Page 664
36.3 Example of Fault Tolerance in a Sensor Network System……Page 665
36.4 Classical Fault Tolerance……Page 666
36.5.1 Physical Layer……Page 667
36.5.2 Hardware……Page 668
36.5.5 Application……Page 669
36.6.1 Heterogeneous Fault Detection……Page 670
36.6.2 Discrepancy-Based Fault Detection and Correction……Page 673
36.7 Future Research Directions……Page 674
References……Page 675
37.2 Location……Page 678
37.4 Computation……Page 679
37.4.1 Asynchronous Processors……Page 680
37.4.2 Variable-Frequency Processors……Page 681
37.5 HardwareÒSoftware Interaction……Page 682
37.6.1 Mote-to-Mote Communication……Page 684
37.6.2 Mote-to-Central Station Communication……Page 686
37.8 Conclusion……Page 687
References……Page 688
38.1 Introduction……Page 690
38.1.1 A Motivational Example……Page 692
38.2.1 On Distributed Sensor Networks……Page 693
38.2.2 On Dynamic Voltage Scaling……Page 694
38.3.1 Model of Sensor Node and Energy Consumption in DSNs……Page 695
38.3.2 Processor with Multiple Supply Voltages……Page 696
38.3.3 The Message Header……Page 697
38.4.2 Energy Consumption for Data Encryption and Decryption……Page 698
38.4.3 Dynamic Voltage Scaling on Sensor Nodes……Page 699
38.5.1 Simulation Platform……Page 700
38.5.2.1 Messages Generated from Simulation……Page 702
38.5.2.2 Simulation on Different System Configurations……Page 703
38.5.2.3 From Where Do Energy Savings Come?……Page 704
38.5.2.4 Energy-Driven System Configuration……Page 705
Acknowledgments……Page 706
References……Page 707
39.1.1 Wireless Sensor Networks……Page 709
39.1.3 Networking and Routing……Page 710
39.1.5 Routing……Page 711
39.2.1 Unit Disk Graph……Page 712
39.2.2 Power-Attenuation Model……Page 713
39.2.4 Low-Weight Structures……Page 714
39.2.5.1 Minimum Spanning Tree, Relative Neighborhood Graph and Gabriel Graph……Page 715
39.2.5.3 Delaunay Triangulation and Voronoi Diagram……Page 716
39.2.6 Localized Algorithms……Page 717
39.3.1.1 Yao Structure……Page 718
39.3.1.2 Sink Structure……Page 719
39.3.1.3 YaoYao Structure……Page 720
39.3.2.2 Localized Delaunay Triangulation……Page 721
39.3.2.3 Partial Delaunay Triangulation……Page 723
39.3.3 Bounded Degree, Planar Structures……Page 724
39.3.4.1 Centralized Low-Weight Bounded Degree Planar Spanners……Page 727
39.3.4.2 Localized Low-Weight Bounded Degree Planar Structures……Page 728
39.3.5 Fault Tolerance……Page 732
39.3.6 Interference……Page 736
39.3.7 Transmission Power Control……Page 737
39.3.8.1 Centralized Methods……Page 738
39.3.8.2.1 Clustering without Geometric Property……Page 739
39.3.8.2.2 Clustering with Geometric Property……Page 740
39.4 Localized Routing……Page 741
39.4.1 Simple Heuristics……Page 742
39.4.2 Right-Hand Rule and Face Routing……Page 743
39.4.3 Combining Face Routing with Greedy Routing……Page 744
39.4.4 Routing on Delaunay Triangulation……Page 745
39.5.1.1 Assumptions……Page 746
39.5.1.2 Centralized Methods……Page 747
39.5.1.3 Theoretical Analysis of Minimum-Energy Broadcast……Page 748
39.5.2 Localized Methods……Page 749
References……Page 750
40.1.1 Motivation……Page 758
40.2 Models and Abstractions……Page 759
40.3 Centralized Algorithm……Page 761
40.4.2 (MI)2……Page 765
40.4.2.2 Phase 2: System Structuring……Page 766
40.4.3 Solving ILP Problems by (Mi)2-Based Paradigm……Page 767
40.5 Analysis……Page 769
40.6 Protocols and Distributed Localized Algorithms……Page 770
40.7 Pending Challenges……Page 772
References……Page 773
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