Dimitris Charalampopoulos, Robert A. Rastall0387790578, 9780387790572, 9780387790589, 0387790586, 9780387790596, 0387790594
Table of contents :
Cover……Page 1
Preface……Page 6
Table of Contents……Page 10
Editors……Page 14
List of Contributors……Page 16
1.1 Introduction……Page 24
1.2 Gastrointestinal Tracts and River Ecosystems……Page 25
1.3 The Components of the GIT Ecosystem……Page 27
1.5 Applications of Probiotics and Prebiotics……Page 36
1.6 Considerations, Limitations, and Opportunities……Page 44
References……Page 46
2.1 Introduction……Page 56
2.2.1 PCR Screening and 16S rRNA Sequence Analysis……Page 58
2.2.2.1 Ribotyping……Page 59
2.2.2.3 Application in Human Intervention Studies……Page 60
2.3.1.1 Principle……Page 61
Dynamic Characterization of the Complexity and Genetic Diversity of the Adult Fecal Microbiota……Page 62
Dynamic Characterization of the Complexity and Genetic Diversity of the Infant Fecal Microbiota……Page 64
Evidence of Vertical Transmission of Maternal Gut Bacteria to the Infant via Breast Feeding……Page 65
2.3.1.3 Application in Probiotic and Prebiotic Intervention Studies……Page 66
2.3.2.1 Principle……Page 67
2.3.2.2 Application in Human Intervention Studies……Page 68
2.3.2.4 Limits……Page 69
2.3.3.2 Application in Human Intervention Studies……Page 70
2.3.4.1 Principle……Page 72
Application in Probiotic Intervention Studies……Page 73
Application in Human Intervention Studies……Page 74
Application in Probiotic Intervention Studies……Page 75
2.3.4.4 Phylogenic Gap……Page 76
Parameters Affecting the Fluorescence Detection……Page 77
Others Parameters Affecting the Detection and Quantification……Page 78
2.3.5.2 Application in Human Intervention Studies……Page 79
2.3.5.3 Application in Prebiotic Intervention Studies……Page 80
2.3.6.2 Application in Human Intervention Studies……Page 81
2.4.1.1 Principle……Page 83
2.4.1.2 Application in Human Intervention Studies……Page 84
2.4.1.3 Application in Animal Studies……Page 85
2.4.1.4 Limits……Page 86
2.4.2.1 Principle and Recent Applications in Studying Complex Microbial Communities……Page 87
2.4.3 From Population Based Analysis to Single Cell Analysis……Page 88
2.4.3.1 Fluorescenc e Activated Cell Sorting……Page 89
2.4.3.2 Microfluidic Based Devices……Page 90
2.5 Conclusion……Page 91
2.6 Summary……Page 92
List of Abbreviations……Page 93
References……Page 94
3.1 Introduction……Page 102
3.2 From Genomics to Metagenomics……Page 103
3.3 The Human Gut Microbiota as an Extension of the Human Genome……Page 104
3.4 Limitations of the Microbiological Culture Based Approaches……Page 105
3.5 Gut Microbiota Community Level Phylogenetic Analysis……Page 108
3.6 Community Finger-Printing Techniques (e.g.,DGGE)……Page 109
3.7 Limitations of PCR Based Techniques……Page 111
3.8 Molecular Characterization of the Gut Microbiota in situ……Page 112
3.9 Culture-Independent Functional Characterization of the Gut Microbiota’s Metabolic Potential……Page 115
3.10 Measuring the Metabolic Kinetics of the Human Gut Microbiota Through Metabonomics……Page 119
3.11 Metabonomics and Disease States (IBD and Colon Cancer)……Page 122
3.12 Measuring the Impact of Microbiota Modulation Using Metabonomics……Page 124
3.13 Conclusion……Page 126
References……Page 127
4.2 Before You Begin……Page 134
4.3 Hypothesis……Page 135
4.4 Choosing an Interventional Agent, Placebo and Packaging……Page 136
4.5 Choosing the Primary Study End-Point……Page 137
4.6 Independent Variables……Page 139
4.7.1 Phase I Trials (Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicity, Typically 20-80 People)……Page 140
4.8 Trial Design……Page 141
4.9 Protocol and Other Study Documents……Page 142
4.10 Selection of Target Study Population……Page 146
4.12 Statistical Considerations: Power and Sample Size……Page 147
4.13 Randomization Process and Labeling of Packaging……Page 149
4.15 Data Analysis……Page 150
4.16 Ethical Considerations……Page 151
4.17 Misconduct……Page 152
4.18 Recruitment, Consent and Data Collection……Page 153
4.20 Dissemination of Research Findings……Page 154
References……Page 156
5.1 Introduction……Page 158
5.2.1 Mucosal Structure……Page 159
5.2.3 Phytic Acid and Mineral Bioavailability……Page 160
5.2.4 Release of Bone-Modulating Factors……Page 161
5.3 Modulation of the Gut Microbiota……Page 162
5.4 Immune System……Page 163
5.5 Lipid Metabolism……Page 164
5.6 Mineral Absorption……Page 166
5.7.1 Atopic Disease……Page 168
5.7.2 Necrotising Enterocolitis……Page 169
5.7.3 Infection Prevention……Page 170
5.8.2 Constipation……Page 171
5.8.3 Infectious and Antibiotic-Associated Diarrhea……Page 172
5.8.4 Inflammatory Bowel Disease……Page 173
5.10 Cancer……Page 175
5.11.1 Diabetes……Page 176
5.11.3 Obesity……Page 177
5.11.5 Other Developing Areas……Page 178
5.12 Summary……Page 179
List of Abbreviations……Page 180
References……Page 181
6.1 Introduction……Page 186
6.2 Natural Occurrence……Page 188
6.3 Chemical Structure……Page 189
6.4 Quantitative Analysis……Page 190
6.5 Physical and Chemical Properties……Page 192
6.6.1 Caloric Value……Page 193
6.6.3 Intestinal Function, Metabolism, and Microbiota……Page 194
6.6.4 Intestinal Infection and Inflammation……Page 200
6.6.5 Colonic Cancer……Page 203
6.6.6 Modulation of Immune Function……Page 206
6.6.7 Absorption and Accretion of Minerals……Page 208
6.6.8 Body Weight, Appetite, Energy Intake, and Metabolism……Page 214
6.7 Outlook and Perspectives……Page 222
References……Page 223
7.1 Introduction……Page 230
7.2.1 Transgalactosylation Reaction……Page 231
7.2.2 Microbial beta-Galactosidase……Page 233
7.2.3 Production Process……Page 234
7.2.4 Commercially Available GOS……Page 236
7.4 Physicochemical Properties……Page 238
7.5.1 GOS Bifidogenicity……Page 240
7.5.3 Prebiotic Properties of GOS……Page 243
7.5.3.1 In Vitro Effects……Page 244
7.5.3.2 In Vivo Human Studies……Page 247
7.5.4 Metabolism in the Colon……Page 249
7.5.5.2 Mineral Absorption……Page 250
7.5.5.4 Carcinogenesis……Page 252
7.5.5.6 GOS and the Immune System……Page 255
7.5.5.7 Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD)……Page 257
7.5.6 Allergy……Page 258
7.5.7 Anti-pathogenic Activity of GOS……Page 259
7.5.8 Neonates and Infants……Page 260
7.6 Under-researched and Possible Beneficial Properties of GOS……Page 261
7.7 Summary……Page 262
References……Page 263
8.2 Manufacture of XOS……Page 268
8.3.1 Resistance to Digestion……Page 269
8.3.2 Fermentation by the Gastrointestinal Microbiota and Selective Stimulation of Growth and/or Activity of Intestinal Bacter……Page 270
8.3.3 Effects on Health……Page 276
8.4 Safety and Regulatory Status……Page 277
8.6 Summary……Page 278
References……Page 279
Resistant Starch and Starch-Derived Oligosaccharides as Prebiotics……Page 282
9.1 Introduction……Page 283
9.2.1 Introduction to a Type 3 Resistant Starch……Page 284
9.2.2 Prebiotic Properties of Various Resistant Starch Products (RS2 and RS3)……Page 287
9.3 Other Starch-Derived Fibers with Potential Prebiotic Effects……Page 302
9.3.1 Introduction to PROMITORtrade Soluble Gluco Fiber (SGF)……Page 303
9.3.2 Growing and Preliminary Evidence on Prebiotic Properties of New Starch-Derived Fibers……Page 308
9.4 Conclusion……Page 309
References……Page 310
10.2 Fructo-Oligosaccharides or Fructans……Page 316
10.2.1 Structural Diversity of Fructans……Page 317
10.2.2 Fructans From Plants……Page 319
10.2.3 Fructans From Microorganisms……Page 320
10.2.4 Kinetic Modeling of Fructooligosaccharide Synthesis……Page 325
10.2.5 Process……Page 326
10.2.6 Physicochemical Properties……Page 334
10.2.7 Functional Properties of Fructooligosaccharides……Page 335
10.2.9 Market……Page 341
10.3.1 Lactosucrose Production……Page 343
10.4 Glucooligosaccharides……Page 345
10.4.1 Dextransucrases……Page 347
10.4.2 Alternansucrase……Page 352
10.4.3 Amylosucrase……Page 354
List of Abbreviations……Page 355
References……Page 356
11.2.1 Manufacture and Structure……Page 360
11.2.3 Tolerance……Page 361
11.2.4 Polydextrose as a Bulking Agent……Page 362
11.2.5 Polydextrose as Dietary Fiber……Page 363
11.3 Application of Polydextrose as a Food Ingredient……Page 364
11.4.1 Introduction……Page 365
11.4.2 Resistance to Gastric Acidity, Hydrolysis by Mammalian Enzymes and Gastrointestinal Absorption……Page 366
11.4.3 Fermentation by the Intestinal Microbiota……Page 367
11.4.4 Selective Stimulation and/or Activity of Intestinal Bacteria Associated with Health and Wellbeing……Page 369
11.4.5 Other Studies……Page 370
11.5 Regulatory Considerations……Page 371
11.7 Conclusion……Page 372
References……Page 373
12.1 Introduction……Page 376
12.2 Prebiotic Use in Companion Animal and Livestock.Species……Page 379
12.3 Special Considerations for Prebiotic Use……Page 465
12.4.1 Future Research……Page 477
List of Abbreviations……Page 478
References……Page 480
13.1 Introduction……Page 488
13.2.1 Planar Chromatography……Page 489
13.2.1.2 Sorbents and Eluents……Page 490
13.2.1.4 Applications……Page 491
13.2.1.5 Coupling with MS……Page 494
13.2.3.1 Sample Preparation……Page 495
Alkyl-Bonded Silica Phases……Page 496
Cyclodextrin-bonded Phases……Page 497
Size Exclusion Phases……Page 498
Anion Exchange Phases……Page 499
13.2.3 .2.2 Column Dimensions and Design……Page 500
Fluorometric Detector……Page 501
Pulse Amperometric Detectors……Page 502
13.2.3.4 Multidimensional HPLC……Page 503
Fructooligosaccharides and Inulin……Page 504
Galactooligosaccharides……Page 506
OtherPrebiotics……Page 508
Purification/Fractionation……Page 510
Derivatization……Page 511
Structural Analysis……Page 512
13.2.4.2 Columns and Stationary Phases……Page 513
13.2.4.3 Chromatographic Conditions……Page 514
13.2.4.5 Applications……Page 515
13.2.5.1 Operation Modes……Page 522
Derivatized Carbohydrates……Page 523
13.2.5.3 Coupling with MS……Page 524
UnderivatizedHMOS……Page 525
Derivatized HMOS……Page 526
Galactooligosaccharides……Page 527
Lactulose……Page 529
Other Nondigestible Oligosaccharides……Page 530
13.2.6 Mass Spectrometry……Page 532
13.2.6.1 Electrospray Ionization……Page 533
13.2.6.2 Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption/Ionization……Page 536
13.2.7 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy……Page 537
13.2.7.3 Methodology……Page 539
13.2.7.4 Applications……Page 540
13.3 Summary……Page 544
List of Abbreviations……Page 545
References……Page 548
14.1 Introduction……Page 558
14.2.1 Structure of Xylans……Page 559
14.2.2 Manufacture of Xylooligosaccharides……Page 560
14.2.3 Purification of Xylooligosaccharides……Page 564
14.2.4 DP Tailoring and Structure of Xylooligosaccharides……Page 572
14.2.5 Biological Properties of Xylooligosaccharides……Page 576
14.2.6 Technological Properties, Commercial Applications and Complementary Aspects……Page 577
14.3.1 Structure, Occurrence, Hydrolytic Degradation and Processing……Page 578
14.3.2 Biological Properties of Mannans and Mannan- Derived Products……Page 581
14.4.1 Structure, Occurrence, and Technological Properties of Arabinogalactans……Page 587
14.4.2 Prebiotic Properties of Arabinogalactans……Page 590
14.4.3 Other Biological Properties of Arabinogalactans……Page 592
14.5.1 Occurrence, Structure and Applications of Pectins……Page 593
14.5.2 Prebiotic Potential of Pectins and Pectin-Derived Products……Page 600
14.5.3 Other Biological Effects of Pectins and Pectin- Derived Products……Page 603
14.6 Summary……Page 606
List of Abbreviations……Page 607
References……Page 608
15.2 What is Taxonomy?……Page 614
15.2.1 Concept, Delineation and Naming of Species……Page 615
15.2.3 Useful Links for Taxonomic Information……Page 617
15.3 Taxonomic Placement of Probiotic Microorganisms……Page 618
15.3.1.1 Genus Lactobacillus……Page 619
Lactobacillus Acidophilus……Page 620
Lactobacillus Casei – Lactobacillus Paracasei……Page 624
Lactobacillus Crispatus……Page 627
Lactobacillus Johnsonii……Page 628
Lactobacillus Reuteri……Page 629
Lactobacillus Salivarius……Page 630
Bifidobacterium Adolescentis……Page 631
Bifidobacterium Bifidum……Page 633
Bifidobacterium Longum……Page 634
15.3.1.4 Genera Streptococcus and Lactococcus……Page 635
Lactococcus Lactis……Page 636
15.3.1.5 Genus Enterococcus……Page 637
15.3.1.6 Genus Pediococcus……Page 638
Pediococcus Acidilactici……Page 640
15.3.2.1 Genus Propionibacterium……Page 641
Propionibacterium Freudenreichii……Page 642
15.3.2.2 Spore-Forming Bacteria: Genera Bacillus, Brevibacillus, Paenibacillus, and Sporolactobacillus……Page 643
Bacillus Cereus……Page 649
Bacillus Coagulans……Page 650
Bacillus Pumilus……Page 651
Brevibacillus Laterosporus (Formerly ‘‘Bacillus laterosporus’’)……Page 652
Sporolactobacillus Laevolacticus……Page 653
15.3.2.3 Genus Escherichia……Page 654
15.3.3 Yeasts……Page 655
List of Abbreviations……Page 656
References……Page 657
16.1 Introduction……Page 662
16.2 Defining the Colon Ecosystem……Page 663
16.2.1 The Human Colon Environment……Page 664
16.2.2 Spatial Heterogeneity……Page 665
16.2.3 Microbial Diversity……Page 667
16.2.4 Ecosystem Stability……Page 670
16.2.5 Spatial Organization of Microbial Communities……Page 672
16.2.5.1 The Lumenal Sub-Ecosystem……Page 673
16.2.5.2 Mucosal Biofilms……Page 675
16.3.1 Substrate Availability……Page 677
16.3.2 Functional Redundancy……Page 678
16.3.4 Secondary Degraders……Page 680
16.3.5 Metabolic Cross-Feeding……Page 681
16.3.5.1 Production and Consumption of SCFA……Page 683
16.3.5.2 Succinate, Lactate, and Ethanol……Page 684
16.3.5.3 Hydrogen Gas Metabolism……Page 685
16.4 Ecological Background of Colon Inulin-Type Fructan Fermentation……Page 687
16.4.1 The Bifidogenic Effect……Page 689
16.4.2 The Butyrogenic Effect……Page 691
16.5 Conclusion……Page 693
References……Page 695
17.1.1 Probiotic Bacteria and Probiotic Genome Sequencing Projects……Page 704
17.2.1 Lactobacilli……Page 705
17.2.2 Bifidobacteria……Page 710
17.3.1 Unusual Carbohydrate and Prebiotic Metabolism……Page 714
17.3.2 Polysaccharides Biosynthetic Gene Clusters……Page 715
17.3.3.1 Acid Stress……Page 717
17.3.3.3 Oxidative Stress……Page 719
17.3.3.4 Bile Stress Response and Bile Tolerance……Page 720
17.3.4 Cell Surface Factors……Page 722
17.3.5 Bacteriocin Biosynthesis and Immunity……Page 727
17.4.1 Lactobacilli……Page 729
17.4.2 Bifidobacteria……Page 732
17.5.1 Lactobacilli……Page 734
17.5.2 Bifidobacteria……Page 736
17.6 Summary……Page 739
References……Page 740
18.2 Selection of Strains……Page 748
18.2.1 Performance in the Gastrointestinal Tract……Page 749
18.4 Growth Media and Conditions……Page 751
18.4.1 Bifidobacteria……Page 755
18.4.2 Lactobacilli……Page 756
18.4.3 Alternative Media……Page 757
18.4.4 Fermentation Methods……Page 758
18.5.1 Freeze Drying……Page 761
18.5.2 Spray Drying……Page 763
18.5.3 Fluidized Bed and Vacuum Drying……Page 766
18.6.1 Storage Conditions……Page 767
18.6.2 Rehydration……Page 768
18.7 Cellular Stresses for Improving the Technological Properties of Probiotics……Page 769
18.8 Summary……Page 772
List of Abbreviations……Page 773
References……Page 774
19.1 Introduction……Page 784
19.2 Inoculation of Probiotics into Foods……Page 785
19.2.1 Inoculation with Frozen Cultures……Page 787
19.2.2 Inoculation with Freeze-Dried Cultures……Page 788
19.2.3 Preparing Bulk Probiotic Cultures……Page 790
19.3.1 Milk……Page 793
19.3.2 Soy……Page 796
19.3.3 Cereal……Page 797
19.3.5 Supplement Ingredients Which Affect the Growth of Probiotics……Page 801
19.3.6 Competition with Starters……Page 805
19.4.1 Freezing……Page 810
19.4.2 Heating……Page 812
19.5.1 Effect of Strain……Page 814
19.5.2 Effect of the Food Matrix……Page 815
19.5.3 Effect of Oxygen……Page 816
19.5.4 The Potential of Encapsulation……Page 817
19.6 Conclusion……Page 818
References……Page 819
20.1 Introduction……Page 828
20.2 Micro-encapsulation Techniques and Processes……Page 829
20.2.2 Spray Chilling and Cooling……Page 830
20.2.6 Extrusion……Page 831
20.3 Technologies used for the Immobilization and Micro-encapsulation of Microganisms……Page 832
20.4 Objectives for the Micro-encapsulation of Probiotics……Page 834
20.5 Biopolymers……Page 838
20.6 Applications of Micro-encapsulation of Probiotics……Page 841
List of Abbreviations……Page 843
References……Page 844
21.1 Introduction……Page 848
21.2.1.1 Lactobacilli……Page 849
21.2.1.3 Enterococcus faecium……Page 852
21.2.1.5 Saccharomyces boulardii……Page 853
21.2.2 Meta-Analyses……Page 854
21.2.3 Mechanisms of Actions……Page 855
21.3.1 Prevention of Clostridium Difficile Infection……Page 856
21.3.1.1 Treatment of CDI……Page 857
21.4 Treatment of Recurrent Clostridium Difficile Infection……Page 858
21.4.1 Meta-Analyses……Page 859
21.6 Grading the Evidence for Probiotics……Page 860
21.8 Summary……Page 861
References……Page 862
22.1 Introduction……Page 868
22.3 What is Acute Versus Chronic Versus Persistent Diarrhea?……Page 869
22.5 What Causes Acute Diarrhea?……Page 870
22.6 How is Acute Diarrhea Diagnosed and Treated?……Page 871
22.8 Why Might Probiotics be Useful for the Prevention or Treatment of Infectious Diarrhea?……Page 873
22.9 Where Does the Evidence on the Use of Probiotics for Infectious Diarrhea Come From?……Page 874
22.10 What is the Evidence for the Use of Probiotics for the Prevention of Infectious Diarrhea?……Page 893
22.11 What is the Evidence for the Use of Probiotics for the Treatment of Infectious Diarrhea not Related to the Use of Antibi……Page 894
22.12 What is the Evidence for the Use of Probiotics for the Prevention of Traveler ‘s Diarrhea?……Page 896
22.13.1 Safety Information from Clinical Trials……Page 897
22.13.2 Safety Information from Case Reports……Page 898
22.13.3 Safety Information from Epidemiologic Studies……Page 910
22.13.5 Safety Information Relating to Product Quality……Page 911
22.14 Summary……Page 912
List of Abbreviations……Page 913
References……Page 914
23.2 Gut Microbiota……Page 924
23.3 The Immune System……Page 925
23.4 Intestinal Microbiota and Immune Development……Page 926
23.5 Probiotics and Stimulation of the Immune System……Page 927
23.6.1 Phagocytic Cell Function……Page 928
23.6.2 NK Cell Activity……Page 929
23.7 Effect on Adaptive (Specific) Immune Responses……Page 931
23.8 Cytokine Production……Page 933
23.9.1 Gastrointestinal Infections……Page 934
27.9.2.1 Respiratory Tract Infections……Page 937
23.10 Immunostimulation and Protection Against Cancer……Page 941
23.10.1 Colorectal Cancer……Page 942
23.10.2 Bladder Cancer……Page 943
23.11.1 Allergies……Page 944
23.11.2 Inflammatory Bowel Disease……Page 950
23.11.3 Diabetes Mellitus……Page 952
23.11.4 Rheumatoid Arthritis……Page 953
23.12.1 Recognition of Probiotics by the Immune System……Page 954
23.12.3 Regulation of Skewed Th1 and Th2 Responses and Attenuation of Immunoinflammatory Disorders……Page 956
23.13 Conclusion……Page 958
List of Abbreviations……Page 959
References……Page 960
24.1 Introduction……Page 972
24.2 Section 1: The Intestinal Ecosystem……Page 973
24.2.1 Host-Microbe Interactions in the Gut……Page 974
24.2.2 Primary Functions of the Gut Microbiota……Page 975
24.2.3 Dysfunction of the Gut Microbiota?……Page 977
24.3 Section 2: Therapeutic Use of Probiotics……Page 978
24.3.2 Acute Diarrhea……Page 979
24.3.4 Helicobacter Pylori Infection……Page 982
24.3.5 Bacterial Translocation……Page 983
24.3.7 Irritable Bowel Syndrome……Page 984
24.3.8 Inflammatory Bowel Diseases……Page 986
24.3.9 The Gut Microbiota in IBD……Page 988
24.3.10 Probiotics in IBD……Page 989
24.3.12 Colon Cancer……Page 992
24.4 Summary……Page 993
References……Page 994
25.1 Introduction……Page 1000
25.2 Gut Microbiota and the Hygiene Hypothesis……Page 1001
25.3 The Establishment of the Gut Microbiota……Page 1002
25.4 Gut Microbiota Differences Predisposing to Atopic Diseases……Page 1003
25.5 The Gut Microbiota as Source of Health Promoting Bacteria……Page 1005
25.6 Probiotics for Counteracting Microbiota and Immune Response Deviations……Page 1006
25.7 Probiotics in the Management and Risk Reduction of Eczema……Page 1008
25.8 Primary Prevention of Atopic Eczema……Page 1010
25.9 Probiotics and Factors Influencing Allergy Prevention Studies……Page 1012
25.10 Conclusion……Page 1013
References……Page 1015
26.2 Diet and Lifestyle Factors and CRC Risk……Page 1020
26.2.1 Colon Carcinogenesis……Page 1021
26.2.2 Role of the Gut Flora in Cancer……Page 1022
26.3.1 Effects of Probiotics and Prebiotics on Bacterial Enzyme Activities……Page 1023
26.3.1.1 Studies in Laboratory Animals……Page 1024
26.3.1.2 Studies in Human Subjects……Page 1027
26.3.2 Anti-Genotoxicity of Probiotics and Prebiotics In Vitro……Page 1031
26.3.3 Anti-Genotoxicity of Probiotics and Prebiotics In Vivo……Page 1036
26.3.4 Effect of Probiotics and Prebiotics on Pre- Cancerous Lesions in Laboratory Animals……Page 1038
26.3.4.1 Effect of Probiotic Treatment Alone……Page 1042
26.3.4.2 Prebiotic Treatment and Colonic ACF……Page 1043
26.3.4.3 Synbiotic Treatments and Colonic ACF……Page 1044
26.3.5 Effect of Probiotics and Prebiotics on Colon Tumor Incidence in Laboratory Animals……Page 1045
26.3.6 Probiotics, Prebiotics and Cancer Human Epidemiological Studies……Page 1050
26.3.7 Effects of Probiotics and Prebiotics in Human Intervention Studies……Page 1052
26.4.2 Effects on Bacterial Enzymes, Metabolite Production……Page 1057
26.4.3 Production of Anti Cancer Metabolites……Page 1058
26.4.5 Increase in Immune Response……Page 1059
26.4.6 Apoptotic Effects……Page 1060
26.5 Summary……Page 1061
List of Abbreviations……Page 1062
References……Page 1063
27.2 Main Problems Associated with Microbes……Page 1072
27.3 What Is the Microbial Composition of the Vagina, Cervix and Urethra?……Page 1075
27.4 Probiotics to Prevent and Treat Urogenital Infections……Page 1078
27.5 Summary……Page 1081
List of Abbreviations……Page 1082
References……Page 1083
28.2 The Oral Cavity and Diseases of the Mouth……Page 1090
28.2.1 Defensive Mechanisms of the Mouth……Page 1092
28.2.2 Oral Hygiene Measures and Anti-Plaque Agents……Page 1093
28.2.3 Dental Diseases and Their Treatment and Prevention……Page 1096
28.2.4 Diseases of Mouth Mucosa……Page 1098
28.2.5 Non-Specific Symptoms of the Mouth……Page 1100
28.3.1 Definitions and Mechanisms of Action of Prebiotics and Probiotics……Page 1101
28.3.2 Prebiotics and Oral Health……Page 1103
28.3.3 Probiotics and Oral Diseases……Page 1104
28.3.3.1 Lactobacilli……Page 1105
28.3.3.3 Bifidobacteria……Page 1107
28.3.3.6 Streptococci……Page 1108
28.3.4 Clinical and Experimental Studies……Page 1109
28.3.5 Vehicles for Probiotic Administration……Page 1111
28.3.6 Safety Aspects of Probiotics in the Oral Health Perspective……Page 1112
28.3.7 Resident Lactic Acid Bacteria in the Mouth……Page 1113
28.3.8 Future Perspectives……Page 1114
28.4 Summary……Page 1115
References……Page 1116
29.2 Potential Applications of Mucosal Immunisation……Page 1122
29.3 Brief Description of the Various Delivery Systems for Mucosal Administration……Page 1123
29.4 Lactic Acid Bacteria as Carrier Systems……Page 1124
29.5 Lactococcus lactis as Live Vaccine Delivery Vector……Page 1125
29.6 Immune Response to Antigens Delivered by Lactococcus lactis……Page 1129
29.7 Lactobacilli as Live Vaccine Delivery Vector……Page 1130
29.9 Recombinant Lactic Acid Bacteria as DNA Delivery Vehicles……Page 1131
29.10 Recombinant Invasive Lactic Acid Bacteria as DNA Delivery Vehicles……Page 1132
29.11.1 Genetic Engineering of LAB to Produce Heterologous Proteins……Page 1133
29.11.2 Transformation of LAB……Page 1134
29.11.3 Nisin Induction, Protein Samples Preparation and Immunoblotting for LAB……Page 1135
29.11.4 Immunofluorescence Microscopy (IFM)……Page 1136
29.11.6 Invasiveness Assays of Bacteria into Human Epithelial Cells……Page 1137
References……Page 1138
30.1.1 Replacing the Use of Antibiotics……Page 1146
30.1.2 Current Legislation……Page 1147
30.1.3 Scope of Use of Pre- and Probiotics to Control Gastrointestinal Diseases in Livestock……Page 1148
30.1.4 Use of Probiotics in Animals……Page 1149
30.1.5 Use of Prebiotics in Animals……Page 1151
30.2.1 Probiotic Products……Page 1154
30.2.2 Selection Criteria for Veterinary Probiotics……Page 1159
30.2.3 Safety Considerations in Probiotic Selection……Page 1160
30.2.4 Carriage of Antimicrobial Resistance Genes in Lactic Acid Bacteria……Page 1161
30.3 The Use of Probiotics in Poultry……Page 1163
30.3.1 Recent Advances in the CE of Salmonella, E. coli and C. perfringens in Poultry……Page 1164
30.3.2 Recent Advances in the CE of Campylobacter in Poultry……Page 1165
30.3.3 Future of CE Strategies and Probiotics in Poultry……Page 1166
30.4 The Use of Probiotics in Ruminants……Page 1167
30.4.2 Probiotics and Their Use to Control Methane Production in Ruminants……Page 1168
30.5 The Application of Probiotics in Pigs……Page 1171
30.6 The Mechanisms behind the Efficacy of Probiotics in Reducing Pathogenic Infection……Page 1172
30.6.1 Production of Organic Acids……Page 1173
30.6.2 Lactic Acid……Page 1175
30.6.4 Reuterin and Reutericyclin……Page 1176
30.6.6 Other Secondary Metabolites……Page 1179
30.6.8 Classification of Bacteriocins……Page 1180
30.6.10 Protection or Enhancement of the Epithelial “Barrier Function”……Page 1182
30.6.11 Immunomodulation……Page 1183
30.6.12 Conclusion……Page 1184
30.7.2 The Effects of Prebiotics on the Microbiome……Page 1185
30.7.3 Fermentation in the GI Tract: Short Chain Fatty Acids (SCFAs)……Page 1194
30.7.4 Prebiotics Use for Reducing Pathogens in Livestock……Page 1195
30.7.5 The Mode of Action of Prebiotics……Page 1196
30.7.6 The Immuno-Modulatory Effects of Prebiotics……Page 1198
30.7.7 Implications of Prebiotics Use in Weight Gain and the Incidence of Diarrhea……Page 1201
30.7.8 Anti-Inflammatory and Anti-Tumor Effects of Prebiotics……Page 1203
30.7.10 Conclusion……Page 1204
References……Page 1205
31.1 Introduction……Page 1216
31.2 Taxonomy and Identification as the Basis of Safety Evaluation……Page 1217
31.3.1 Antibiotic Resistance of Probiotics……Page 1221
31.3.1.1 Antibiotic Resistance in Lactobacillus……Page 1223
31.3.1.2 Antibiotic Resistance in Bifidobacterium……Page 1226
31.3.1.3 Antibiotic Resistance in Other Probiotic Species……Page 1227
31.3.1.4 Summary of Antibiotic Resistance of Probiotics……Page 1228
31.3.2 Virulence Genes and Toxic Metabolite Production……Page 1229
31.3.3 Adhesion of Probiotics to Host Tissues……Page 1230
31.3.6 Resistance to Host Defense Mechanisms……Page 1232
31.3.8 Summary of In Vitro Assessment of Probiotic Safety……Page 1233
31.4.1 Animal Models in Probiotic Research……Page 1234
31.4.2 Examples of Probiotic Safety Assessments Using Animal Models……Page 1236
31.4.3 Concluding Remarks on Animal Models in the Safety Assessment of Probiotics……Page 1238
31.5 Human Interventions in the Safety Assessment of Probiotics……Page 1239
31.6.1 Sepsis Related to Probiotic Use……Page 1242
31.6.2 Gastrointestinal Symptoms Related to Probiotic Use……Page 1247
31.6.3 Other Adverse Events Related to Probiotic Use……Page 1248
31.6.4.1 Underlying Diseases and Treatments……Page 1249
31.6.4.2 Probiotic Strain Selection and Characteristics……Page 1250
31.7 Conclusion……Page 1252
List of Abbreviations……Page 1253
References……Page 1254
Subject Index……Page 1260
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