Environmental monitoring

G. Bruce Wiersma1566706416, 9781566706414, 9780203495476

The current rate and scale of environmental change around the world makes the detection and understanding of these changes increasingly urgent. Subsequently, government legislation is focusing on measurable results of environmental programs, requiring researchers to employ effective and efficient methods for acquiring high-quality data.Environmental Monitoring is the first book to bring together the conceptual basis behind all monitoring activities with specific approaches to the monitoring of air, water, and land. Coverage includes integrated monitoring at the landscape level, as well as case studies of existing monitoring programs. The book focuses on pollution issues and impacts resulting from human activities and includes results from monitoring efforts carried out in various countries on several continents. The multinational makeup of the contributors and the cases presented gives the book worldwide relevance.Academics in all fields relating to environmental monitoring, as well as governmental agency employees and supporting contractor agencies, will find this book a comprehensive and useful reference.

---

Table of contents :
Front cover……Page 1
Preface……Page 6
About the Editor……Page 8
Contributors……Page 10
Table of Contents……Page 20
CONTENTS……Page 24
EPA’s Regional Vulnerability Assessment Program: Using Monitoring Data and Model Results to Target Actions……Page 0
1.1 INTRODUCTION……Page 25
1.2 GENERAL MONITORING DESIGN CONCEPTS FROM NRC REPORTS……Page 26
1.3 OVERVIEW OF SPECIFIC CONCEPTUAL MONITORING DESIGN COMPONENTS……Page 30
1.4 CONCEPTUAL MONITORING DESIGN COMPONENTS……Page 32
1.4.1……Page 33
1.4.2……Page 36
1.4.4 ECOSYSTEM ENDPOINTS……Page 37
1.4.5 DATA INTEGRATION……Page 41
1.4.6 LANDSCAPE WATERSHED SPATIAL SCALING……Page 44
1.5 SYNTHESIS AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS IN MONITORING DESIGN……Page 47
1.5.1 EPA BASINS……Page 48
1.5.3 CITYGREEN REGIONAL ANALYSIS……Page 49
1.5.6 HOMELAND SECURITY……Page 50
1.6 CONCLUSION……Page 51
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS……Page 52
REFERENCES……Page 53
CONTENTS……Page 60
2.2 INFORMATION SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT 2.2.1……Page 61
2.2.2……Page 62
2.2.3……Page 65
2.2.4……Page 68
2.3 DATA QUALITY……Page 69
2.3.1……Page 70
2.3.2……Page 71
2.3.3……Page 72
2.4 METADATA……Page 73
2.4.2……Page 74
2.5 DATA ACCESS, EXPLORATION, AND ANALYSIS……Page 75
2.5.2 WEB-BASED DATA ACCESS……Page 76
2.5.3 DATA ANALYSIS……Page 77
2.6 DEVELOPING TECHNOLOGIES FOR NETWORKED INFORMATION SYSTEMS……Page 79
2.6.2 THE SEMANTIC WEB KNOWLEDGE-BASED DATA SYSTEMS KNOWLEDGE-BASED DATA SYSTEMS……Page 80
2.7 CONCLUDING REMARKS……Page 81
REFERENCES……Page 82
3.1 INTRODUCTION……Page 86
3.2 MULTIMEDIA MODELS……Page 87
3.3 MULTIMEDIA MODEL SELECTION……Page 88
3.4.1……Page 89
3.4.3……Page 94
3.5 DATA QUALITY OBJECTIVES……Page 95
3.6 CONCEPTUAL SITE MODEL DEVELOPMENT……Page 96
3.7 EXPEDITED SITE CHARACTERIZATION……Page 98
3.8.1……Page 99
3.8.2 PANTEX: MINIMIZATION CHARACTERIZATION COSTS……Page 100
3.8.3 DEPARTMENT ENERGY HANFORD SITE: USING MODELS IDENTIFY DATA NEEDS……Page 101
3.9 CONCLUSIONS……Page 102
REFERENCES……Page 103
CONTENTS……Page 106
4.1.2……Page 107
4.1.3……Page 109
4.1.4……Page 110
4.2 THE NATURE OF SOME CURRENT ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES……Page 112
4.2.2……Page 113
4.2.5……Page 114
4.3.1……Page 115
4.4 APPLICATION OF THE RESULTS OF MONITORING……Page 117
4.5.1……Page 118
4.5.2……Page 119
4.5.3 INTERNATIONAL COOPERATIVE PROGRAMS ESTABLISHED CONVENTIONLONG-RANGE TRANSBOUNDARY AIR POLLUTION……Page 120
4.5.4 MONITORING THE EFFECTS OF ACID RAIN……Page 121
4.5.6 GLOBAL CLIMATE OBSERVING SYSTEM……Page 123
4.5.7 VOLUNTEER MONITORING NETWORKS……Page 125
4.5.8 ENVIRONMENT CANADA’S VOLUNTEER CLIMATE NETWORK……Page 126
4.6 THE FUTURE……Page 127
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS……Page 129
REFERENCES……Page 130
CONTENTS……Page 134
5.1 INTRODUCTION……Page 135
5.1.1……Page 136
5.1.3……Page 138
5.2.1……Page 140
5.2.2 THE LONG-TERM PERCENTAGE CHANGE……Page 142
5.3 CASE STUDY: ASSESSMENT OF DRY CHEMISTRY CHANGES AT CASTNET SITES 1989–1998……Page 144
5.4 SOLUTION TO THE CHANGE ASSESSMENT PROBLEM……Page 146
5.4.1 ESTIMATION INFERENCE……Page 147
5.4.2 THE AVERAGE PERCENTAGE DECLINE IN AIR POLLUTION……Page 151
5.4.3 LONG-TERM CONCENTRATION DECLINES AT CASTNET STATIONS……Page 153
5.4.4 STATISTICAL FEATURES OF THE INDICATORS pc AND pd……Page 160
5.5.1 ESTIMATION INFERENCE INDEPENDENT SPOT CHANGES……Page 162
5.5.2 MODEL VALIDATION……Page 166
5.5.3 POLICY-RELATED ASSESSMENT PROBLEMS……Page 168
5.6.1 THE ARMA(p,q) MODELS……Page 170
5.6.2 SELECTION ARMA(p,q) MODEL……Page 172
5.6.3 DECLINE ASSESSMENT PROBLEMS INVOLVING AUTOCORRELATION……Page 173
5.7.1 MODELS WITH LINEAR RATE OF CHANGE……Page 175
5.7.2 DECLINE ASSESSMENT FOR MODELS WITH LINEAR RATE OF CHANGE……Page 177
5.7.3 INFERENCE FOR MODELS WITH LINEAR RATE OF CHANGE……Page 178
5.7.4 THE ABSOLUTE PERCENTAGE CHANGE AND DECLINE……Page 180
5.7.5 A MODEL WITH TIME CENTERED SCALE……Page 181
5.8.1 THE SPATIAL MODEL FOR RATES OF CHANGE……Page 182
5.8.2 COVARIANCE STRUCTURE OF SPATIAL MODEL……Page 184
5.8.3 MULTIVARIATE ARMA(p,q) MODELS……Page 185
5.8.4 IDENTIFICATION OF SPATIAL MODEL……Page 187
5.8.5 INFERENCE FOR THE SPATIAL DATA……Page 188
5.8.6 APPLICATION OF THE SPATIAL MODEL TO CASTNET DATA……Page 189
5.9.1 EXTENSION OF CHANGE INDICATORS TO DATA WITH TIME-DEPENDENT VARIANCE……Page 194
5.9.2 OPTIMALITYFEATURES……Page 196
5.9.4 APPLICATION NONSTATIONARY MODEL……Page 197
5.9.5 CAPMON CASTNET COMPARISON……Page 200
5.10 CASE STUDY: ASSESSMENT OF DRY CHEMISTRY CHANGES AT APIOS-D SITES DURING 1980–1993……Page 202
5.10.1 APIOS-D ANALYSIS……Page 203
5.10.2 APIOS-D CAPMON COMPARISON……Page 204
5.11 CASE STUDY: ASSESSMENT OF PRECIPITATION CHEMISTRY CHANGES AT CASTNET SITES DURING 1989–1998……Page 206
5.12.1 ML ESTIMATION AR(p) PROCESSES……Page 214
5.12.2 VARIABILITY AVERAGE VS. VARIABILITY……Page 216
5.12.3 POWER……Page 217
5.13.1 METHOD-RELATED CONCLUSIONS……Page 219
5.13.2 CASE-STUDY RELATED CONCLUSIONS……Page 220
REFERENCES……Page 221
CONTENTS 6.1 INTRODUCTION……Page 224
6.2 AIR MONITORING STUDY PREPARATION……Page 225
6.3 SITING……Page 227
6.4 SAMPLING AND OPERATION……Page 230
6.5 QUALITY ASSURANCE AND CONTROL……Page 234
6.6 DATA EVALUATION AND ASSESSMENT……Page 236
REFERENCES……Page 238
CONTENTS 7.1 INTRODUCTION……Page 240
7.2 MONITORING DESIGN……Page 241
7.3 BIOASSESSMENT……Page 244
7.4 MICROBIOLOGICAL MONITORING……Page 248
7.5 REMOTE SENSING……Page 251
REFERENCES……Page 257
8.1 INTRODUCTION……Page 262
8.2 NO-UPGRADIENT WELL AND/OR NATURAL VARIABILITY CASE……Page 263
8.2.1……Page 265
8.2.2……Page 266
8.2.3……Page 267
8.2.4 COMPUTING POWER CURVES……Page 268
8.2.5 POWER EVALUATIONS……Page 269
8.2.6 AVERAGE RUN LENGTH……Page 270
8.3.1 ESTIMATING TREND USING NONPARAMETRIC METHOD……Page 271
8.3.3 CASE STUDY……Page 273
8.4 SUMMARY……Page 275
REFERENCES……Page 277
9.1 INTRODUCTION……Page 280
9.2 WELL PATTERN……Page 281
9.3 SETBACK AND FLOW RATE……Page 283
REFERENCES……Page 285
10.1 INTRODUCTION……Page 286
10.2 OBJECTIVE AND APPROACH……Page 288
10.3 MONITORING TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEMS— DESIGN AND CONSIDERATIONS……Page 289
10.4 SELECTION OF INDICATORS OF ECOSYSTEM STATUS……Page 293
10.5 CONCLUSIONS……Page 302
REFERENCES……Page 304
CONTENTS……Page 306
11.1 INTRODUCTION……Page 307
11.2 METHODS 11.2.1 S……Page 308
11.2.3……Page 309
11.2.4……Page 311
11.2.5……Page 314
11.3 RESULTS 11.3.1 FHM FOREST MENSURATION INDICATOR……Page 315
11.4 FHM DAMAGE AND CATASTROPHIC MORTALITY ASSESSMENT INDICATOR……Page 317
11.4.2 TREE SEED PRODUCTION INDICATOR……Page 319
11.4.4 FHM VEGETATION STRUCTURE INDICATOR……Page 320
11.5.2……Page 322
11.5.3……Page 323
REFERENCES……Page 325
12.1 INTRODUCTION……Page 330
12.1.2……Page 331
12.1.3……Page 332
12.2 MAPPING THE LAND……Page 335
12.2.1……Page 337
12.2.2……Page 338
12.2.3……Page 340
12.2.4……Page 341
12.3 ANALYZING LAND-USE/LAND-COVER CHANGE 12.3.1……Page 345
12.3.2 INTERPRETATION……Page 348
12.4 EXAMPLES OF ONGOING LANDSCAPE MONITORING PROGRAMS……Page 349
12.5 CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS……Page 351
REFERENCES……Page 352
13.1 INTRODUCTION……Page 360
13.2 FOREST HEALTH INVENTORY IN SWEDEN……Page 361
13.3.2……Page 363
13.3.3……Page 364
13.4 PROBLEMS WITH MAINTAINING THE CONSISTENCY OF ASSESSMENTS……Page 366
13.4.1 VISUAL PERCEPTION……Page 367
REFERENCES……Page 368
14.1 INTRODUCTION……Page 370
14.2 MATERIALS AND METHODS……Page 373
14.3 IMPACT OF CROWN DEFOLIATION TO TREE INCREMENT……Page 375
14.4 QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS AND PREDICTION OF TREE-RING SERIES……Page 377
14.5 ANTHROPOGENIC CHANGES IN TREE-RING SERIES VARIANCE……Page 385
14.6 ANTHROPOGENIC CHANGES IN TREE GROWTH RELATIONS WITH CLIMATIC FACTORS……Page 386
14.7 CONCLUSIONS……Page 387
REFERENCES……Page 389
15.1 INTRODUCTION……Page 394
15.2 METHODS 15.2.1……Page 395
15.2.3……Page 396
15.3 RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS……Page 397
REFERENCES……Page 399
16.1 INTRODUCTION……Page 402
16.2.1……Page 404
16.2.2……Page 405
16.2.3……Page 407
16.3 IMPLICATIONS FOR SITE REMEDIATION……Page 409
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS……Page 411
REFERENCES……Page 412
17.1 INTRODUCTION……Page 414
17.2 OVERVIEW……Page 415
17.3 TYPES OF ENDPOINTS……Page 416
17.4 ASSESSMENT……Page 418
17.5 ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING……Page 422
17.6 STATISTICAL ASPECTS OF MONITORING AIR QUALITY: AN EXAMPLE……Page 423
17.7 SUMMARY……Page 424
REFERENCES……Page 425
18.1 INTRODUCTION……Page 430
18.2 MULTIPLE-POINT VARIANCE ANALYSIS (MPV) 18.2.1 G……Page 432
18.2.2 Multi-Point Variance Reduction Analysis (MPVR)……Page 433
18.2.3 MULTIPLE-POINT VARIANCE INCREASE ANALYSIS (MPVI)……Page 436
18.2.4 OPTIMAL MPVR……Page 437
18.3 CASE STUDY OF AN OPTIMAL ADJUSTMENT……Page 440
18.3.1 MPVR AND MPVI APPLICATIONS……Page 441
18.3.2 INFORMATION EFFICIENCY……Page 443
18.3.3 COMBINED OPTIMAL MPVI AND MPVA……Page 445
REFERENCES……Page 446
19.1 INTRODUCTION……Page 450
19.3 PILOT STUDIES AS A SOURCE OF AN ESTIMATE OF VARIANCE……Page 451
19.3.1……Page 452
19.4.1 A CASE STUDY……Page 458
19.5 STRATEGIES FOR REDUCING VARIATION AND DEALING WITH UNCERTAINTY……Page 460
REFERENCES……Page 461
APPENDIX: AN INTRODUCTION TO STATISTICAL POWER ANALYSIS*……Page 464
CONTENTS……Page 466
20.2 QUALITY ASSURANCE……Page 467
20.3 ERRORS……Page 468
20.4 MONITORING IN A VARIABLE ENVIRONMENT NEEDS PROPER SAMPLING DESIGN……Page 469
20.4.1 Environmental Factors as Source of Noise in Biomonitoring Data……Page 470
20.5 ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS AND SAMPLING DESIGN……Page 472
20.6 INDICATOR DEVELOPMENT……Page 474
20.7.1 TOO COMPLEX OR TOO LAX SAMPLING PROTOCOLS MAY INDUCE RELEVANT OBSERVER ERRORS……Page 475
20.7.2 TYPE OF SAMPLING MEASUREMENTS……Page 476
20.7.3 TAXONOMIC SKILL OF THE OPERATORS……Page 477
20.7.4 OBSERVER ERROR LICHEN DIVERSITY MONITORING……Page 478
20.7.5 OBSERVER ERROR OZONE MONITORING TOBACCO PLANTS……Page 480
20.7.6 OBSERVER ERROR TREE CONDITION SURVEYS……Page 481
20.7.8 TIME REQUIRED EACH SAMPLING PHASE……Page 482
REFERENCES……Page 483
CONTENTS 21.1 INTRODUCTION……Page 488
21.2 MATHEMATICAL MODEL DESIGN……Page 490
21.3 MATHEMATICAL EXPERIMENTS……Page 491
21.4 CONCLUSIONS……Page 519
REFERENCES……Page 520
22.1 THE USES OF MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT IN ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY-MAKING……Page 522
22.2 ACID PRECIPITATION……Page 524
22.3 STRATOSPHERIC OZONE DEPLETION……Page 526
22.4 GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE……Page 528
22.5 CRITERIA AIR POLLUTANTS IN THE U.S…….Page 530
22.6 WATER QUALITY IN THE U.S…….Page 532
22.7 ENVIRONMENTAL “REPORT CARDS”……Page 533
REFERENCES……Page 535
CONTENTS……Page 540
23.2 BACKGROUND PRINCIPLES AND CONCEPTS 23.2.1……Page 541
23.2.3……Page 542
23.2.5……Page 547
23.3.2 DVELOPMENT……Page 548
23.3.3 USES……Page 553
23.4 LESSONS LEARNED……Page 556
23.5 CONCLUSION……Page 558
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS……Page 559
REFERENCES……Page 560
CONTENTS……Page 564
24.1.1……Page 565
24.2 MONITORING……Page 566
24.2.2……Page 567
24.3 BIOINDICATORS……Page 568
24.3.1……Page 569
24.3.2……Page 572
24.3.3……Page 573
24.4 CONCLUSIONS……Page 583
REFERENCES……Page 584
25.1 INTRODUCTION……Page 590
25.2 DEVELOPING A COMPREHENSIVE ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING PROGRAM……Page 591
25.2.2……Page 592
25.2.3……Page 593
25.2.4……Page 598
REFERENCES……Page 599
26.1 INTRODUCTION……Page 606
26.2.2……Page 607
26.3 INTRODUCING MEASURABLE ASPECTS OF SURVEY QUALITY 26.3.1……Page 608
26.3.3……Page 609
26.5 VARIANCES 26.5.1……Page 611
26.5.2……Page 612
26.6 JUDGING LOCAL DATA BY USING NEARBY SITES 26.6.1 INTERPOLATION……Page 618
26.6.2 USING NEARBY SITES ESTIMATE LOCAL VARIANCE……Page 619
26.7 JUDGING SURVEY QUALITY BY RECALCULATING SURVEY DATA……Page 620
REFERENCES……Page 624
CONTENTS……Page 628
27.2 CHALLENGES……Page 629
27.3.1……Page 630
27.3.2……Page 633
27.3.4……Page 634
27.4 EXAMPLES OF CURRENT MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING NETWORKS……Page 636
27.4.2……Page 637
27.4.3……Page 640
27.4.5……Page 641
27.4.6……Page 643
27.5 HUMAN HEALTH MONITORING……Page 646
27.6.1 INFORMATION MANAGEMENT……Page 648
27.7 FUTURE POTENTIAL DEVELOPMENTS……Page 649
REFERENCES……Page 650
28.1 INTRODUCTION……Page 654
28.2.1……Page 656
28.2.3……Page 657
28.3 SHARED OWNERSHIP BY MEANS OF VIRTUAL GOVERNANCE……Page 658
28.3.1……Page 659
28.3.2……Page 661
28.3.3……Page 663
28.4.1……Page 664
28.4.2……Page 665
KNOWLEDGE……Page 667
28.5 CONCLUDING REMARKS……Page 668
ACKNOWLEDGMENT……Page 669
REFERENCES……Page 670
29.1 INTRODUCTION……Page 672
29.2 FRAMEWORK FOR A NATIONAL DESIGN……Page 674
29.3 GEOGRAPHIC APPLICATIONS……Page 680
29.5 MEASURES OF CURRENT SUCCESS……Page 684
29.6 FUTURE DIRECTIONS FOR EMAP MONITORING RESEARCH……Page 685
29.7 SUMMARY……Page 686
REFERENCES……Page 687
30.2 HISTORY AND MANAGEMENT OF FHM……Page 692
30.3 CONCEPTUAL APPROACHES TO FHM……Page 694
30.4 OPERATION OF FHM……Page 696
30.5 DEVELOPMENT EFFORTS IN THE FHM PROGRAM……Page 698
30.6 FHM REPORTS……Page 700
30.7 CONCLUSION……Page 703
REFERENCES……Page 704
CONTENTS……Page 708
31.1 INTRODUCTION……Page 709
31.2 DESIGN RATIONALE……Page 711
31.3 PARTNERSHIPS……Page 713
31.4 NETWORK DESCRIPTION……Page 717
31.5.1……Page 719
31.6 METHODS OF DATA ANALYSIS 31.6.1……Page 720
31.7 QUALITY ASSURANCE……Page 721
31.9 LIMITATIONS……Page 722
31.10 CONCENTRATION TRENDS……Page 723
31.10.3 NITRIC ACID……Page 725
31.10.4 PARTICULATE AMMONIUM……Page 726
31.11 2002 CONCENTRATIONS OF SULFUR AND NITROGEN……Page 727
31.11.1 SULFUR……Page 728
31.11.2 NITROGEN……Page 731
31.12 DEPOSITION OF SULFUR AND NITROGEN……Page 733
31.13 RELATIVE CONTRIBUTIONS TO TOTAL ATMOSPHERIC DEPOSITION……Page 734
31.13.2 NITROGEN DEPOSITION……Page 735
31.14.1 EIGHT-HOUR CONCENTRATIONS……Page 737
31.15 CONCLUSION……Page 738
REFERENCES……Page 740
32.1 BACKGROUND……Page 742
32.2 INTEGRATED SCIENCE FOR ECOSYSTEM CHALLENGES……Page 744
32.3 REGIONAL VULNERABILITY……Page 745
32.4 GOAL AND OBJECTIVES……Page 746
32.7 MAPPING EXPOSURES 32.7.1……Page 747
32.7.2……Page 750
32.8 INTEGRATION AND EVALUATION……Page 751
32.9 DEVELOPING ALTERNATIVE FUTURE SCENARIOS……Page 752
32.10 DEMONSTRATION OF FINER-SCALE APPLICATIONS……Page 753
REFERENCES……Page 754
Index……Page 756
Back cover……Page 792