Handbook of Water Treatment

Table of contents :
TOP COVER……Page 1
Contents……Page 6
1. Introduction to Water Treatment……Page 45
1.2.1 Reduction of Total Cost Performance……Page 46
Table 1.1 Kinds of toxicity tests for water treatment chemicals……Page 47
Table 1.2 Amount of water on the earth……Page 48
Table 1.4 Thermodynamic properties of water, ethylalcohol and acetone……Page 49
Fig. 1.6 Names of electron orbits and the numbers of acceptable electrons……Page 50
Table 1.5 Periodic table of the elements……Page 51
Table 1.7 Solubilities of popular water treatment chemicals……Page 53
2. Water Treatment and Chemicals for Boiler Water Systems……Page 60
Table 2.1 Examples of raw water qualities……Page 62
Table 2.2 Troubles in the operation of boiler systems and their causes……Page 63
Table 2.3 Thermal conductivities of scale components and metals……Page 65
Fig. 2.13 Relationship between the carbon content of scale and the allowable scale amount……Page 69
Table 2.7 Analysis of a scale accumulated in a superheater by the carryover problem……Page 76
Fig. 2.30 Distribution ratio (Dsi) of silica between boiler water and steam……Page 78
Fig. 2.33 Structure of a spray-tray type deaerator……Page 81
Table 2.9 Relationship between boiler pressure and the condensate treatment equipments……Page 82
Table 2.10 Kinds, functions and typical chemical names of boiler treatment chemicals……Page 83
Photo 2.15 Distorted calcium silicate crystals by adding polymer D……Page 89
Table 2.14 Oxygen scavengers……Page 93
2.4.5 Corrosion Inhibitors for the Feedwater and Condensate Lines……Page 96
Table 2.17 Typical boiler scale analyses……Page 101
Fig. 2.70 Effect of an antifoaming agent against carryover……Page 102
Table 2.18 Corrosion rates of carbon steel test coupons in the water tube of a mini-circulation boiler……Page 103
Fig. 2.74 Positions of test coupons in a water tube of a mini-circulation boiler……Page 104
Table 2.23 Required amounts of desiccants for the dry preservation of boilers……Page 106
2.7.2 Control of Boiler Water Blowdown……Page 111
2.7.3 Control of Chemical Injection……Page 113
2.8.1 Recovery of Condensate……Page 116
Fig. 2.81 Relationship between the condensate recovery ratio, and the saving of fuel and water costs in A company……Page 118
Fig. 2.84 Heat transfer in boiler……Page 119
Table 2.28 Boiler operational conditions of C company……Page 121
Table 2.29 Boiler operational conditions of D company……Page 122
3. Cooling Water Treatment……Page 133
Fig. 3.4 Types of cooling towers……Page 134
Table 3.3 Flows of cooling water in tubular heat exchangers and their characteristics……Page 137
Fig. 3.10 Relationship among make-up water, blowdown water and cycles of concentration……Page 140
Table 3.8 Frequency of trouble occurrence in each type of cooling water systems……Page 141
Photo 3.1 Element distributions in a protective film (a polyphosphate-zinc polymer treatment)……Page 145
Photo 3.7 Chloride concentration in the pit of a stainless steel……Page 148
Fig. 3.27 Influence of chloride and sulfate ion concentration on the effects of various corrosion inhibitors against carbon steel……Page 152
3.3.1 Kinds of Scales and Their Solubilities……Page 154
Fig. 3.36 Influences of water temperature, calcium hardness and sulfate ion concentration on calcium sulfate (CaSO4·2H2O) deposition……Page 160
Photo 3.11 Crystal distortion and dispersion by sacle inhibitors……Page 162
Table 3.18 Kinds of effetive inhibitors on various scale components……Page 163
Fig. 3.42 Relationship among the critical pH of calcium phosphate deposition, calcium hardness and the dosage of a scale inhibitor (polymer)……Page 164
Fig. 3.46 Relationship between the heat flux and skin temperature of heat exchanger tube……Page 166
Table 3.20 Places soiled with biofouling and the types of fouling……Page 167
Table 3.21 Types and characteristics of microorganisms producing biofouling……Page 168
Table 3.23 Energy sources and nutrients of microorganisms growing in cooling water systems……Page 169
Fig. 3.55 Schematic process of slime adhesion……Page 172
3.4.6 Factors Influencing the Effects of Biofouling Control Agents……Page 173
3.4.7 Kinds and Effects of Biofouling Control Agents……Page 174
Fig. 3.66 Inhibition effect of a polymer dispersant against ferric hydroxide precipitation……Page 178
Fig. 3.67 Relationship between the turbidity of cooling water and the side stream filtration rate……Page 179
Table 3.31 Outline of chemical treatments for closed recirculating cooling water systems……Page 183
Table 3.35 Fatigue strength of cast iron and the effect of a nitrite……Page 185
Fig. 3.72 Effect of a nitrite based corrosion inhibitor on carbon steel in 30% ethylenglycol brine……Page 186
3.6.1 Control of Cooling Water Quality and Chemical Injection……Page 187
3.6.2 Monitoring of Water Treatment……Page 191
Fig. 3.79 Schematic diagram of the monitoring and diagnosing system of the KURITA MOBILE LABORATORY……Page 194
Table 3.40 Damage of metals by a high pressure water-jet cleaning*……Page 196
Table 3.41 Inhibition effect of a pretreatment on the pitting corrosion of new carbon steel tubes……Page 198
Table 3.44 Relationship between the designed fouling factor of heat exchanger and the allowable thickness of corrosion product……Page 200
Table 3.47 Water cost saving by applying a chemical water treatment in the model cooling water system……Page 202
Table 3.49 An example of the operational cost saving of the model cooling water system by applying water treatment chemicals (comparison with the case of no chemical treatment)……Page 203
4. Coagulants, Flocculants and Sludge Dewatering Agents……Page 209
Fig. 4.2 Classification of chemical water and wastewater treatment methods……Page 210
Fig. 4.3 Classification of biological wastewater treatment methods……Page 211
Fig. 4.4 Example of wastewater treatment processes and chemicals to be applied……Page 212
Fig. 4.5 Structure of a solid-contact type clarifier……Page 213
Fig. 4.7 Schematic model of coagulation and flocculation process……Page 214
Table 4.2 Kinds and features of inorganic coagulants……Page 217
Table 4.3 Kinds and structures of typical organic coagulants……Page 218
Table 4.5 COD removal effect of KURIDECODE L-101 against a wastewater from a dye work……Page 222
Fig. 4.27 Handy disperser of powder flocculants……Page 226
Fig. 4.28 Processes of sludge treatment and disposal……Page 227
Fig. 4.39 Relationship between the VSS/SS ratio of sludge and the appropriate cationized ratio of polymer dewatering agent for the dewatering by a belt press dehydrator……Page 233
Table 4.14 Reduction of unpleasant odors by KURINCAKE……Page 238
4.4 Safety of Polymer Flocculants……Page 240
5. Water Treatment for Air Conditioning Systems……Page 245
Fig. 5.4 Types of cleaning for heat exchangers of refrigerating machines (without chemical treatment)……Page 246
Fig. 5.6 Relationship among the cycles of concentration, make-up water and total blowdown in a cooling tower system……Page 247
Table 5.1 Standard control range of cooling water quality for a Non-P multi-chemical treatment……Page 248
Fig. 5.12 Flow diagram of an automatic operation control system utilizing data communication system for multi-cooling-tower systems……Page 251
Fig. 5.13 An example of side-stream filter installation for a cooling tower system……Page 252
Table 5.5 Relationship between the LTD and fouling condition of heat exchangers……Page 254
Fig. 5.21 Corrosion inhibition effect of a nitrite based inhibitor on copper……Page 257
Fig. 5.23 Corrosion inhibition effect of a food additive grade inhibitor on carbon steel in hot water……Page 258
Table 5.9 Effects of a corrosion inhibitor for high temperature water systems……Page 260
Table 5.10 Types and characteristics of electric power generators for cogeneration systems……Page 261
Table 5.11 Corrosion inhibition effect of a phosphonate-zinc-polymer based inhibitor in a heat accumulation system with ice……Page 262
Table 5.12 Effect of a formulated corrosion inhibitor for a propylene glycol antifreeze……Page 263
Fig. 5.32 Inhibition effect of a polyphosphate on ferric hydroxide precipitation……Page 265
Table 5.14 Types and features of humidifiers……Page 267
Fig. 5.37 Flow diagram of a small size reverse osmosis unit……Page 268
Fig. 5.42 Reduction of the LTD of a refrigerating machine condenser by removing the calcium carbonate scale……Page 271
Table 5.17 Ministerial ordinance on water quality……Page 272
Fig. 5.47 Fouling adhesion on the aluminum fins of a heat exchanger……Page 274
6. Chemicals for Pulping and Papermaking Processes……Page 282
Table 6.2 Chemicals using for deinking process……Page 283
Fig. 6.4 Flow-sheet of a pulp conditioning system……Page 284
Fig. 6.6 Typical wire-arrangements of twin-wire formers……Page 285
Fig. 6.8 A high-speed cylinder-type paper machine (ultra former)……Page 286
Fig. 6.12 Change in the whiteness of DIP in each point of a DIP manufacturing plant under the treatment with an EO-PO addition product of higher alcohol……Page 288
Table 6.5 Effect of a retention aid in a coat base paper manufacturing using a twin wire machine……Page 292
Table 6.7 Relationship between the kinds of pulps and their sizing efficiencies……Page 294
Fig. 6.26 Relationship between the appropriate HLB of self-emulsifying type antifoaming agents and white water temperature……Page 297
Fig. 6.28 Flow diagram of white water recovery and recycling system in a paperboard making plant……Page 298
6.4.3 Places of Deposit Generation and Kinds of Deposits……Page 300
Table 6.12 Cleaning effect of EDTA on barium sulfate scale……Page 302
Table 6.19 Troubles caused by the putrefaction of starch……Page 309
Fig. 6.38 Effect of a preservative on a starch glue liquid in the storage tank……Page 310
Table 6.20 Size-fixing effect of a retention……Page 311
7. Chemicals for Petroleum Refining and Petrochemical Processes……Page 315
Table 7.1 (2) Properties of typical crude oils imported to Japan (Data of Petroleum Association of Japan)……Page 316
Fig. 7.1 Typical petroleum refining processes……Page 317
Fig. 7.3 Flow diagram of an ethylene and propylene production process (Lumus method)……Page 318
7.3.2 Fouling in Petroleum Refining and Petrochemical Processes, and Antifouling Agents……Page 321
Table 7.5 Saturated dissolved oxygen concentrations in crude oil fractions……Page 325
Table 7.7 Typical test conditions of up-down test apparatus for evaluating filming inhibitors……Page 332
7.3.5 The Other Chemicals……Page 334
8. Water Treatment for Iron and Steel Making Plants……Page 339
Fig. 8.1 Iron and steel making processes……Page 340
8.2.5 Steel Making Process (Converters and Continuous Casting Plants)……Page 341
8.3.1 Blast Furnace Body Cooling Systems……Page 342
Fig. 8.5 Structure of a tuyere……Page 344
Fig. 8.6 Structure of a hot blast valve and the box……Page 345
Table 8.2 Causes and countermeasures of spray nozzle clogging……Page 347
Fig. 8.10 Water flow diagram of a hot rolling mill……Page 348
Table 8.6 Chemical compositions of a limestone and a quicklime……Page 352
Table 8.11 Effect of the combined treatment of a scale inhibitor and a water quality modifica-tion against a converter gas cleaning water of the B-II type……Page 354
Fig. 8.15 Sprinkling methods of dust blow-away preventives……Page 356
Fig. 8.19 Flow sheet of a pulverization process of quicklime……Page 357
9. Cleaning of Plants and Equipments……Page 361
Table 9.1 Thermal conductivities of metals and boiler scales……Page 362
Photo 9.2 Spheroidized pearlite structure of a carbon steel due to a high temperature……Page 363
9.3.2 Nuclear Power Plants……Page 364
Table 9.4 Cleaning methods and their cleaning objects……Page 365
Fig. 9.4 Relationship among the deposition rate of iron oxide, iron concentration in boiler water and heat flux……Page 366
Table 9.8 Kinds of main cleaning agents……Page 369
9.5.3 Cleaning Methods……Page 374
9.5.4 Cleaning Processes and Their Procedures……Page 375
Fig. 9.13 Typical procedures for the chemical cleaning of a boiler……Page 379
Table 9.11 Typical qualities of wastewaters from various cleaning processes……Page 387
Fig. 9.15 Relationship between pH and the solubilities of metallic ions……Page 388
9.6.2 Examples of Mechanical Cleaning……Page 392
Fig. 9.22 Recoveries in the vacuums of steam condensers after their high pressure water jet cleanings……Page 394
Table 9.14 Wastewater qualities of a boiler furnace cleaning with a high pressure water jet……Page 395
9.7.2 Mechanical Cleaning……Page 396
10. Miscellaneous Specialty Chemicals………………………Page 401
Fig. 10.2 Influence of drinking water qualities on the growth and health of rats……Page 403
Fig. 10.4 A typical flow diagram of ultra-pure water production system (2)……Page 404
Table 10.5 Comparative prevension effects of KURIBERTER EC-700 and sodium hydrogen sulfite on the deterioration of a RO membrane system by chlorine……Page 405
Table 10.6 Effect of a chemical treatment on the copper wire destruction of a portable spot-welding machine……Page 406
Photo 10.5 Comparative microstructures of broken copper wires with and without a chemical treatment……Page 407
Fig. 10.7 Flow diagram of a continuous refuse incineration plant and the places in which scales are formed…….Page 408
Table 10.8 Problems caused by over-spray paint in painting plants……Page 409
Fig. 10.10 Functions of paint killers and improvements in paint booth operations under the paint killer treatments……Page 410
Table 10.10 Classification of antifoaming agents based on their appearances……Page 412
10.7.5 Processes Applying Antifoaming Agents……Page 413
Table 10.11 Recognized threshold values of eight substances causing offensive odors……Page 414
Table 10.13 Nine-stage comfortable and discomfortable indexes……Page 415
Fig. 10.14 Classification of measuring methods for odor strengths……Page 416
Fig. 10.19 Effects of deodorants on hydrogen sulfide generation from a sludge……Page 418
Table 10.14 Effects of a ferric salt addition on hydrogen sulfide and methylmercaptan generations from a mixed sludge……Page 419
Table 10.16 Effect of an essential oil type deodorant in a refuse incineration plant……Page 420
Fig. 10.21 A flow diagram for the cleaning of a spiral element type RO membrane system……Page 422
Table 10.20 Effects of a cleaning agent on fouled cationic exchange resins……Page 423
10.10.1 Features of Synthetic Zeolites……Page 424
Fig. 10.25 Adsorption-desorption cycle of T.S.A. method……Page 427
Table 10.25 Effect of a dust blow-away preventive on a soil washed-away by raining……Page 430
Fig. 10.34 A schematic model of the film formation by a dust blow-away preventive on the surface area of land……Page 431
11. Analyses for System Operation Control and Trouble Shooting……Page 439
Table 11.1 Analytical items and methods for water quality control in boiler systems……Page 440
11.1.4 Automatic Analysis Systems……Page 441
Fig. 11.2 Flow chart of a data transmission and reporting system……Page 443
Table 11.3 Kinds of chemical cleaning solutions for various metals……Page 444
Table 11.4 Principles and uses of surface analyzers……Page 445
Table 11.5 Kinds of metals and their suitable etching solutions……Page 446
Appendices……Page 457
LIST OF FIGURES……Page 14
Table 1.6 Electron configurations and valences of the principal elements……Page 52
Table 1.8 Solubilities* of air, nitrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide……Page 54
Fig. 1.10 Change in the dissociation degree of water with temperature……Page 57
Table 1.10 Dissociation degrees of various acids and bases for their 0.1 N solutions at 25C……Page 58
Fig. 2.4 Typical structure of small to medium size water-tube boilers……Page 61
Table 2.4 Scale analyses of low pressure boilers……Page 66
Fig. 2.11 Relationship between the iron oxide scale thickness and inner skin temperature of a boiler tube……Page 68
Fig. 2.14 Influence of temperature on carbon steel corrosion in water including dissolved oxygen……Page 70
Fig. 2.17 Influence of chloride and sulfate ions on carbon steel corrosion……Page 71
Fig. 2.20 Influence of dissolved oxygen on the corrosion of carbon steel in a condensate line……Page 72
Table 2.6 Relationship between the injection points of an oxygen scavenger and the total iron of feedwater……Page 73
Fig. 2.23 Influence of pH and oxygen on the corrosion of carbon steel in a high pressure and high temperature water……Page 74
Fig. 2.25 Relationship between alkali concentration and the corrosion of carbon steel……Page 75
Fig. 2.27 Solubility of silica in superheated steam……Page 77
Table 2.8 Causes and their countermeasures of hardness leakage from softeners……Page 79
Fig. 2.32 Demineralization treatment (2-beds and 1-degasifier type)……Page 80
Table 2.11 Phosphates used for boiler compounds……Page 84
Table 2.12 Typical analyses of scales in a boiler……Page 85
Fig. 2.40 Relationship among pH, phosphate ion concentration and the Na/PO4 mole ratio of boiler compound……Page 86
Photo 2.11 Normal crystal shape of calcium carbonate (calcite)……Page 87
Photo 2.13 Perfectly distorted calcium carbonate crystals by adding a sufficient amount of polymer A……Page 88
Fig. 2.46 Dispersing effects of various sludge dispersants against hydroxyapatite……Page 90
Photo 2.20 Precipitate of hydroxyapatite distorted under the polymer E treatment……Page 91
Photo 2.25 Particles of magnetite dispersed by polymer I treatment……Page 92
Fig. 2.53 Influences of pH and temperature on the oxygen removal reaction of sodium sulfite……Page 94
Fig. 2.56 Thermal decomposition of sodium sulfite……Page 95
Fig. 2.58 Relationship between copper corrosion and condensate pH……Page 97
Table 2.15 Neutralizing effects and dissociation constants of neutralizing agents……Page 98
Fig. 2.64 Influence of dissolved oxygen in condensate on the corrosion inhibition effect of ODA on carbon steel……Page 99
Table 2.16 Effectiveness of the combined use of a neutralizing amine and a filming amine……Page 100
Table 2.25 Control items of boiler water quality and their purposes……Page 109
Fig. 2.76 Influence of silica concentration on the relationship between the pH and P-alkalinity of boiler water……Page 110
Fig. 2.77 Relationship between the sodium sulfate concentration and electrical conductivity of boiler water……Page 112
Fig. 2.78 Relationship between water temperature and the saturation concentration of dissolved oxygen (atmospheric pressure)……Page 114
Fig. 2.80 Injection point for sodium sulfite based oxygen scavengers and boiler compounds in case of a boiler equipped with a desuperheater……Page 115
Fig. 2.86 Change of combustion gas temperature under a fixed boiler water temperature……Page 120
Fig. 3.5 A typical small size cooling tower (counter flow type)……Page 135
Fig. 3.7 Typical structures of tubular heat exchangers……Page 136
Table 3.4 Metals used for pipings and heat exchangers……Page 138
Fig. 3.12 Mechanism of carbon steel pitting corrosion under fouling……Page 142
Table 3.9 Classification of corrosion inhibitors……Page 143
Fig. 3.14 Schematic structure of protective film formed by a phosphate-polymer treatment……Page 144
Fig. 3.16 Influnce of chloride ion concentration and process fluid temperature on the occurrence of stress corrosion cracking of stainless steels (SUS 304, 304L, 316, 316L and 405)…….Page 147
Fig. 3.19 Relationship between the corrosion inhibition effect of a phosphonate on carbon steel and calcium hardness……Page 149
Fig. 3.22 Corrosion inhibition effect of a low molecular weight water soluble polymer on carbon steel……Page 150
Fig. 3.25 Corrosion inhibition effect of benzotriazole on copper and aluminum brass……Page 151
Fig. 3.30 Relationship between the effect of a polyphosphate based corrosion inhibitor on carbon steel and water flow rate……Page 153
Table 3.10 Temperature dependence of calcium carbonate saturation conditions……Page 155
Table 3.17 Phosphate factor for tricalcium phosphate……Page 158
Fig. 3.35 Solubilities of calcium sulfate and carbonate……Page 159
Photo 3.10 Growth of calcium carbonate crystals in the absence of scale inhibitor (optical microscopic photographs)……Page 161
Fig. 3.44 Influence of water flow rate on the scaling rate of calcium carbonate and the effect of a scale inhibitor……Page 165
Fig. 3.51 Influence of pH on the growth rate of bacteria……Page 170
Fig. 3.52 Relationship between the number of bacteria in cooling water and the frequency of biofouling troubles in heat exchangers under intermittent chlorination……Page 171
Fig. 3.59 Inhibition effect of a chlorine keeping agent against copper corrosion caused by chlorine……Page 175
Table 3.24 Effect of an organic bromine compound on slime adhesion (field test)……Page 176
Table 3.25 Biostatic effect of a quaternary ammonium salt……Page 177
Table 3.33 Effect of a biocide on the consumption of nitrite by nitrification bacteria……Page 184
Fig. 3.74 Effect of an initial treatment with a zinc-phosphate based inhibitor on carbon steel……Page 188
Fig. 3.75 Illustration of a chemical concentration control during from an initial to maintenance treatment period……Page 189
Fig. 3.77 Flow diagram of a test heat exchanger……Page 192
Photo 3.16 Interior view of the KML……Page 208
Fig. 3.81 Effect of a chemical flushing with a polyphosphate, polymer and surfactant based chemical in a new cooling tower system……Page 197
Table 3.45 Relationship between the designed fouling factor of heat exchanger and the allowable scale thickness (calcium phosphate)……Page 201
Fig. 4.9 Change of a zeta potential by coagulant dosing……Page 215
Table 4.1 C values of various coagulants for the coagulation of a suspended aqueous solution of coal……Page 216
Fig. 4.14 Comparative effects of an inorganic coagulant and the combined use with an organic coagulant for a wastewater treatment in an automobile factory……Page 219
Fig. 4.16 Case 2, wastewater treatment of a toilet paper factory……Page 220
Table 4.4 Removal effects of various coagulants against organic compounds (COD) in water……Page 221
Fig. 4.23 Influence of coagulant dosage on the effects of nonionic and anionic polymer flocculants……Page 224
Fig. 4.25 Effects of a sulfonated polymer and a conventional polymer flocculants for a wastewater treatment in a pulp and paper mill……Page 225
Fig. 4.29 Relationship between the SS content of sludge and the moisture content of dewatered cake……Page 228
Table 4.7 Types of dehydrators and their characteristics……Page 229
Table 4.9 Relationship between the operational conditions and dewatering effect of belt press dehydrators……Page 230
Fig. 4.35 Sludge dewatering mechanism of a filter press dehydrator……Page 231
Table 4.10 Correlation coefficients among sludge properties and the cake moisture content……Page 232
Table 4.11 Typical polymer based dewatering agents……Page 234
Fig. 4.42 Comparison of sludge dewatering effects of the CSA system and a conventional treatment (mixed sewage sludge)……Page 235
Table 4.12 Reduction of fuel consumption for cake drying and incineration by the application of the CSA system……Page 236
Table 4.13 Typical application results of amphoteric polymers for sludge dewatering by centrifugal dehydrators……Page 237
Fig. 4.49 A sludge dewatering test for belt press dehydrators……Page 239
Table 5.2 Corrosion inhibition effect of a Non-P multi-chemical……Page 249
Table 5.3 Inhibition effect of a Non-P multi chemical on L. pneumophila growth……Page 250
Table 5.4 Increase in the electricity consumption of a refrigerating machine by the scaling of condenser……Page 253
Table 5.6 Energy saving effect of a chemical water treatment for a 400 RT centrifugal refrigerating machine……Page 255
Table 5.8 Corrosion inhibition effect of a polyphosphate-zinc-polymer treatment in a closed water recirculating system with heat accumulation tank……Page 256
Fig. 5.25 Effects of a corrosion inhibitor on carbon steel and copper in high temperature water……Page 259
Table 5.13 Kinds of corrosion inhibitors for water and hot water supply systems……Page 264
Fig. 5.35 Corrosion potential of copper tube under a polyphosphate based corrosion inhibitor treatment……Page 266
Table 5.15 Compatibility of cleaning agents with structural materials……Page 269
Table 5.16 KURITA’s standard specifications for the chemical cleaning of air conditioning cooling water systems……Page 270
Table 5.18 Investigation results of the tap water qualities of buildings in Tokyo and Osaka……Page 273
Table 5.19 Comparison of the performances of a refrigerating machine before and after cleaning……Page 275
Photo 5.16 A small size spray type cleaning machine……Page 276
Fig. 6.10 Relationship between the HLB of surfactants and their deinking effects……Page 287
Fig. 6.13 Functional mechanisms of retention aids……Page 289
Table 6.3 Types and effects of retention aids on the retention and drainage of pulp……Page 290
Fig. 6.18 Canadian standard freeness tester……Page 291
Table 6.9 Problems caused by foaming in papermaking processes……Page 295
Fig. 6.24 Comparison of the influences of an advanced and a conventional antifoaming agents on sizing degree……Page 296
Table 6.11 Kinds and dosages of additives using for neutral papermaking process……Page 299
Fig. 6.30 Places of deposit generation and the kinds of deposits……Page 314
Table 6.13 Kinds of pitches……Page 303
Fig. 6.33 A typical relationship between bacteria accounts and dosing points of biocides in a pulp and paper mill……Page 305
Table 6.16 Relationship among paper qualities, the types of slime and the kinds of slime troubles……Page 306
Table 6.18 Comparison of bacterial growth conditions between acidic and neutral papermaking processes……Page 308
Fig. 7.2 Petroleum refining processes and the chemical injection points……Page 335
Fig. 7.5 Water separation in an electrical desalter……Page 319
Fig. 7.6 Influence of Maya crude blending ratio to the other crudes on the desalting effect……Page 320
Table 7.2 Types and functions of antifouling agents……Page 322
Table 7.3 Conventional evaluation methods for the effects of antifouling agents in the site……Page 323
Fig. 7.9 Reduction in crude oil temperature at a heating furnace inlet by the preheater fouling and the effect of an antifouling agent……Page 324
Fig. 7.12 An analysis of carboxylic acids in the drain of overhead line in an atmospheric distillation unit ………………………………………………………………………………….. 7-12……Page 326
Fig. 7.14 Relationship between condensation ratio and the drain pH……Page 327
Fig. 7.16 Relationship between the condensation ratio and the pH of condensed water under different neutralizing treatments……Page 328
Fig. 7.17 Relationship between the effect of a filming inhibitor on carbon steel and the condensate pH in the overhead line of an atmospheric distillation unit……Page 329
Fig. 7.18 Flow diagram of a fluid catalytic cracking unit……Page 330
Table 7.6 Typical testing conditions of neutralizers for the overhead lines of distillation units……Page 331
Table 7.8 Corrosion monitoring methods applied for refineries and petrochemical plants……Page 333
Fig. 8.2 Flow diagram of iron and steel making processes, and the use points of water treatment chemicals……Page 359
Table 8.1 Classification of indirect cooling water systems in iron and steel works……Page 343
Fig. 8.9 Outline of a continuous casting plant……Page 346
Table 8.3 Yield and composition of blast furnace gas……Page 349
Fig. 8.13 Effect of a scale inhibitor and the influence on the scale composition……Page 351
Photo 8.3 Effect of a moisture reducing agent to prevent the break of coal pile……Page 360
Table 8.14 Effect of a bulk density improving agent in a coke oven……Page 358
Table 9.6 Critical scale thickness or amount requiring a boiler cleaning……Page 367
Table 9.7 Standard chemical cleaning intervals for oil-burning boilers……Page 368
Fig. 9.7 Relationship between temperature and the decomposition rate of sulfamic acid to sulfuric acid……Page 370
Fig. 9.9 Acceleration of carbon steel corrosion by ferric ion and the effect of a reducing agent……Page 372
Fig. 9.11 Effect of a silica dissolving agent on a scale containing silica……Page 373
Fig. 9.12 An example of acid cleaning solution analysis……Page 378
Fig. 9.14 Flow-diagram of a boiler cleaning……Page 383
Table 9.12 CODMn and BOD of the 0.1% solutions of various chemical cleaning agents……Page 389
Fig. 9.19 Relationship between the abrasing amounts of metals and the blasting time……Page 391
Fig. 9.20 A typical procedure for the high pressure water jet cleaning of a boiler furnace……Page 393
Table 10.3 Distilled water drinking conditions of crews receiving blood tests……Page 402
Table 10.9 Case studies of paint killer (KURISTUCK) treatments……Page 411
Fig. 10.16 Relationship between pH and the dissociation of hydrogen sulfide……Page 417
Table 10.21 Chemical resistances of filter cloth materials using for sludge dehydrators……Page 425
Fig. 10.28 Changes in the water adsorption capacities of adsorbents against the times of regeneration in a naphtha cracked gas drying process……Page 428
Fig. 10.31 Operation principle of oxygen production by P.S.A. method……Page 429
Fig. 10.35 Effect of a dust blow-away preventive on sand blow-away under various wind velocities……Page 432
Table 11.2 Analytical items and methods for water quality control in cooling water systems……Page 442
Fig. 11.5 Schroetter’s alkalimeter……Page 449
LIST OF TABLES……Page 30
Table 1.9 The equivalent electrical conductivities of ions at the infinite dilution……Page 56
Table 1.12 Ionization series of metals and their reactivities……Page 59
Table 2.5 Scale analyses of medium or high pressure boilers……Page 67
Table 2.21 Preservation methods of boilers by using a saccharide during short period (within 10 days)……Page 105
Table 2.24 Control items of feedwater quality and their purposes……Page 108
Table 2.27 Data for fuel and water cost estimation……Page 117
Table 2.30 Boiler operational conditions of E company……Page 123
Table 3.6 Relationship between actual and calculated evaporation losses in each season in Japan……Page 139
Table 3.14 Relationship between M-alkalinity and D in the equation (3.32)……Page 156
Table 3.15 pH-temperature factor for tricalcium phosphate……Page 157
Table 3.26 Example of a high hardness water treatment (alkaline treatment)……Page 180
Table 3.28 Example of a high salinity water treatment (zinc-phosphonate-polymer treatment)……Page 181
Table 3.30 Example of a non-phosphorous corrosion inhibitor treatment (2) (all polymer treatment)……Page 182
Table 3.38 Items and frequencies of water analysis for closed recirculating cooling water systems……Page 190
Table 3.43 Estimated operational cost of the model cooling water system (without chemical treatment)……Page 199
Table 4.6 Kinds and features of nonionic and anionic polymer flocculants……Page 223
Table 6.6 Profits obtained by using a retention aid in a white board manufacturing……Page 293
Table 6.15 Kinds of microorganisms forming slime in pulp and papermaking processes……Page 304
Table 6.17 Typical slime control agents using for pulp and paper-manufacturing processes……Page 307
Table 6.21 Relationship among paper qualities, the causes of deposits and additives for deposit control……Page 312
Table 8.5 Qualities of blast furnace gas cleaning waters and the scale compositions……Page 350
Table 8.9 Classification of the qualities of converter gas cleaning waters……Page 353
Table 8.13 Advantages of an organic coagulant treatment for an oily wastewater in a cold rolling mill……Page 355
Table 9.9 Typical cleaning processes and the specifications……Page 376
Table 9.10 Decontamination methods and the applicable objects……Page 386
Photo 9.8 Wet sand jet cleaning apparatus and its nozzles……Page 390
Table 10.17 Analyses of foulings adhering to filter media……Page 421
Table 10.23 Molecular diameters of various substances……Page 426
Table 11.6 Conversion factors calculating metallic oxide concentrations from the ion concentrations……Page 447
Table 11.7 Identification for the types of biofouling (slime) from the chemical analysis……Page 450
LIST OF PHOTOGRAPHS……Page 38
Photo 2.3 Corrosion of an economizer tube……Page 125
Photo 2.6 Corrosion of a steam condensate line……Page 126
Photo 2.9 Corrosion of steam condenser tubes (aluminum brass)……Page 127
Photo 2.16 Comparison of the effect of a non-phosphorous (polymer) treatment with those of conventional treatments……Page 128
Photo 2.23 Improvement of scale inhibition by polymer E under a phosphate treatment……Page 129
Photo 2.27 Inside codition of a smoke tube boiler treated by a saccharide based oxygen scavenger……Page 130
Photo 2.29 Effect of an on-stream scale removal treatment for a boiler……Page 131
Photo 2.30 Corrosion of a boiler occurred during the stoppage……Page 132
Photo 3.5 Local corrosion with green rusts on the inside surface of a copper heat exchanger tube (without corrosion inhibitor)……Page 205
Photo 3.6 Pitting of aluminum brass and the concentration of chloride in the pit……Page 146
Photo 3.12 Slime adhered on glass slides (examples of slime adhesion degree)……Page 206
Photo 3.14 Corrosion meter developed by KURITA……Page 207
Photo 4.1 Dissolution of EDP FLOC……Page 242
Photo 4.2 Comparison of the appearances of dewatered cakes treated with a conventional treatment and the CSA system (belt press dehydrator)……Page 243
Photo 4.3 Pellet type flocs formed by an amphoteric polymer treatment and the dewatered cake……Page 244
Photo 5.4 Condition of a refrigerating machine condenser treated with a slime control agent……Page 277
Photo 5.7 No algae adhesion to the cooling tower after using a tablet-type cooling water treatment agent……Page 278
Photo 5.9 Non-uniform oxide film on the copper tube inside of an air handling unit before the use……Page 279
Photo 5.12 Inner surface condition of a carbon steel pipe treated with a nitrite based corrosion inhibitor during 15 years……Page 280
Photo 5.15 Effect of a rinsing agent preventing readhesion of contaminants……Page 281
Photo 6.1 Holes, spots and fish eyes of paper products……Page 313
Photo 7.4 Corrosion test apparatus for the initial condensation zone of fractionators……Page 337
Photo 7.6 Effect of a dispersant on fouling including polystylene……Page 338
Photo 9.3 Measurement of scale thickness on a boiler tube by the microscopic observation……Page 380
Photo 9.4 Element distributions of a boiler scale, analyzed by using a X-ray microanalyzer……Page 381
Photo 9.6 Small size high pressure water jet cleaning unit……Page 398
Photo 9.9 Pigs……Page 399
Photo 9.11 LAVAL SEPARATOR®……Page 400
Photo 10.4 Congestion of liver tissue of a rat taking a distilled water……Page 433
Photo 10.9 Clean piping treated with a scale inhibitor……Page 434
Photo 10.11 Effect of a cleaning agent for sand filter media fouled with oils, in the direct cooling water system of blooming plant in a steel mill……Page 435
Photo 10.16 The filter cloth after cleaning……Page 436
Photo 10.19 Prevention of the death of lawn grasses by using the mixture of a high-water-absorbing polymer with soil……Page 437
Photo 10.22 Grass planting of a reclaimed land by utilizing a dust blow-away preventive……Page 438
Photo 11.4 Dispersant analysis kit for boiler water……Page 451
Photo 11.6 Auger electron spectrometer……Page 452
Photo 11.9 Total organic carbon analyzer……Page 453
Photo 11.14 Furier transform infrared spectrophotometer……Page 454
Photo 11.19 Navicula sp. (diatom) (x 100)……Page 455
Photo 11.23 Geotrichum sp. (fungi) (x 400)……Page 456
LIST OF APPENDICES……Page 43
A1.4 Units of weight……Page 458
A1.7 Units of flow rate……Page 459
A1.11 Units of thermal conductivity……Page 460
A2 Atomic weights of elements……Page 461
A3 Saturation state steam table (temperature base)……Page 462
A4 Saturation state steam table (pressure base)……Page 463
A5 Compressed water and superheated steam table (1)……Page 464
A5 Compressed water and superheated steam table (2)……Page 465
A6 Constants of saturated water and steam……Page 466
A7 Constants of water……Page 467
A8 Solubilities of gasses in water……Page 468
A9 Solubility of oxygen in pure water……Page 469
A10 Relationship among the pH, free CO2 and alkalinity of water……Page 470
A13 Specific gravity of sodium hydroxide solution……Page 471
A16 Relationship between the pH and concentration of HCl, H2SO4 or NaOH solution……Page 472
A18 Relationship among the pH, concentration and Na/PO4 ratio of sodium phosphate solution……Page 473
A19 Relationship between the electrical conductivity and concentration of HCl, H2SO4, NaOH or NaCl solution……Page 474
A21 Freezing points of organic brines……Page 475
A22 Nomogram for converting flow rate into flow velocity (flow velocity into flow rate) in piping……Page 476
A23 Properties of pure metals……Page 477
A24 Properties of alloys……Page 478
A25 Chemical resistant materials for tank, pump and piping……Page 479
A26 Chemical resistant lining materials……Page 480
A27.2 Steel pipes and tubes (1)……Page 481
A27.2 Steel pipes and tubes (2)……Page 482
A29 Compositions and calorific values of various fuels……Page 483
A30 Relationship between the temperatures and viscosities of various fuel oils……Page 484
A32 Typical seawater analysis……Page 485
A33 Typical qualities of Japanese industrial waters……Page 486
A34.1 Feedwater and boiler water qualities for cylindrical boilers (JIS B8223-1989)……Page 487
A34.2 Feedwater and boiler water qualities for water tube boilers (JIS B8223-1989)……Page 488
A34.3 Feedwater qualities for once-through boilers (JIS B8223-1989)……Page 489
B……Page 490
C……Page 491
E……Page 494
G……Page 495
K……Page 496
O……Page 497
P……Page 498
S……Page 499
T……Page 500
Z……Page 501