Robert H. Perry, Don W. Green9780070498419, 0-07-049841-5
Table of contents :
Front Matter……Page 1
About the Editors……Page 4
List of Contributors……Page 5
L……Page 0
Table of Contents……Page 15
Preface to the Seventh Edition……Page 17
Conversion Factors……Page 18
Fig. 1-1 Graphic Relationships of SI Units with Names……Page 19
Table 1-3 SI Prefixes……Page 20
Table 1-4 Conversion Factors: U.S. Customary and Commonly Used Units to SI Units……Page 21
Table 1-5 Metric Conversion Factors as Exact Numerical Multiples of SI Units……Page 30
Table 1-6 Alphabetical Listing of Common Conversions……Page 32
Table 1-9 Values of the Gas-Law Constant……Page 35
Table 1-11 Temperature Conversion……Page 36
Table 1-12 Specific Gravity, Degrees Baume, Degrees API, Degrees Twaddell, Pounds per Gallon, Pounds per Cubic Foot……Page 37
Table 1-13 Wire and Sheet-Metal Gauges……Page 38
Table 1-14 Fundamental Physical Constants……Page 39
Conversion of Values from US Customary Units to SI Units……Page 40
Table 1-16 Greek Alphabet……Page 41
Contributors……Page 42
General Reference……Page 47
Table 2-1 Physical Properties of the Elements and Inorganic Compounds……Page 48
Table 2-2 Physical Properties of Organic Compounds……Page 69
Table 2-4 Vapor Pressure of Liquid Water from -16 to 0°C……Page 89
Table 2-5 Vapor Pressure of Liquid Water from 0 to 100°C……Page 90
Table 2-6 (Live Eqns.) Vapor Pressure of Inorganic and Organic Liquids……Page 91
Table 2-6a Alphabetical Index to Substances in Tables 2-6, 2-30, 2-164, 2-193, 2-196, 2-198, and 2-221……Page 96
Table 2-7 Vapor Pressures of Inorganic Compounds, up to 1 atm……Page 98
Table 2-8 Vapor Pressures of Organic Compounds, up to 1 atm……Page 102
Table 2-8 Vapor Pressures of Organic Compounds, up to 1 atm (concluded)……Page 116
Table 2-10 Partial Pressures of HCl over Aqueous Solutions of HCl……Page 117
Table 2-11 Partial Pressures of H2O and SO2 over Aqueous Solutions of Sulfur Dioxide……Page 118
Table 2-12 Water Partial Pressure, bar, over Aqueous Sulfuric Acid Solutions……Page 119
Table 2-13 Sulfur Trioxide Partial Pressure, bar, over Aqueous Sulfuric Acid Solutions……Page 121
Table 2-14 Sulfuric Acid Partial Pressure, bar, over Aqueous Sulfuric Acid……Page 123
Table 2-15 Total Pressure, bar, of Aqueous Sulfuric Acid Solutions……Page 124
Table 2-16 Partial Pressures of HNO3 and H2O over Aqueous Solutions of HNO3……Page 125
Table 2-21 Partial Pressures of H2O over Aqueous Solutions of NH3……Page 126
Table 2-22 Mole Percentages of H2O over Aqueous Solutions of NH3……Page 127
Table 2-23 Partial Pressures of NH3 over Aqueous Solutions of NH3……Page 128
Table 2-24 Total Vapor Pressures of Aqueous Solutions of NH3……Page 129
Table 2-27 Partial Pressures of H2O over Aqueous Solutions of Sodium Hydroxide……Page 130
Figure 2-4 Water Content of Air……Page 131
Table 2-28 Density (kg/m3) of Water from 0 to 100°C……Page 132
Table 2-29 Density (kg/m3) of Mercury from 0 to 350°C……Page 134
Table 2-30 (Live Eqns.) Densities of Inorganic and Organic Liquids……Page 135
Table 2-39 Arsenic Acid (H3AsO4)……Page 140
Table 2-51 Ferric Chloride (FeCl3)……Page 141
Table 2-65 Nickel Sulfate (NiSO4)……Page 142
Table 2-66 Nitric Acid (HNO3)……Page 143
Table 2-70 Potassium Bromide (KBr)……Page 144
Table 2-85 Sodium Formate (HCOONa)……Page 145
Table 2-93 Sodium Silicates……Page 146
Table 2-100 Stannous Chloride (SnCl2)……Page 147
Table 2-101 Sulfuric Acid (H2SO4)……Page 148
Table 2-106 Formic Acid (HCOOH)……Page 150
Table 2-107 Acetic Acid (CH3COOH)……Page 151
Table 2-109 Methyl Alcohol (CH3OH)……Page 152
Table 2-110 Ethyl Alcohol (C2H5OH)……Page 153
Table 2-111 Densities of Mixtures of C2H5OH and H2O at 20°C……Page 154
Table 2-112 Specific Gravity (60°/60°F [(15.56°/15.56°C)]) of Mixtures by Volume of C2H5OH and H2O……Page 155
Table 2-114 Isopropyl Alcohol (C3H7OH)……Page 156
Table 2-116 Hydrazine (N2H4)……Page 157
Table 2-117 Densities of Aqueous Solutions of Miscellaneous Organic Compounds……Page 158
Table 2-118 Approximate Specific Gravities and Densities of Miscellaneous Solids and Liquids……Page 160
Units Conversions……Page 161
Table 2-120 Solubilities of Inorganic Compounds in Water at Various Temperatures……Page 162
Table 2-127 Carbonyl Sulfide (COS)……Page 166
Table 2-133 Hydrogen (H2)-Temperature……Page 167
Table 2-141 Oxygen (O2)-Pressure……Page 168
Thermal Expansion of Gases……Page 169
Table 2-145 Linear Expansion of the Solid Elements……Page 170
Table 2-146 Linear Expansion of Miscellaneous Substances……Page 171
Table 2-148 Cubical Expansion of Solids……Page 172
Table 2-149 Additional References Available for the Joule-Thomson Coefficient……Page 173
Table 2-153 Joule-Thomson Data for Argon……Page 174
Table 2-158 Approximate Inversion-Curve Locus for Ethane……Page 175
Table 2-163 Approximate Inversion-Curve Locus for Propane……Page 176
Table 2-164 Critical Constants and Acentric Factors of Inorganic and Organic Compounds……Page 177
Table 2-166 Compressibility Factors for Argon……Page 181
Table 2-169 Compressibility Factors for Ethanol……Page 182
Table 2-172 Compressibility Factors for KLEA 60……Page 183
Table 2-175 Compressibility Factors for Krypton……Page 184
Table 2-178 Compressibility Factors for Neon……Page 185
Table 2-181 Compressibility Factors for Refrigerant 32……Page 186
Table 2-184 Compressibility Factors for Refrigerant 134a……Page 187
Table 2-185 Compressibility Factors for Water Substance (fps units)……Page 188
Table 2-186 Compressibility Factors of Water Substance (SI units)……Page 189
Table 2-188 Compressibilities of Liquids……Page 190
Units Conversions……Page 191
Table 2-190 Heats of Fusion and Vaporization of the Elements and Inorganic Compounds……Page 192
Table 2-191 Heats of Fusion of Miscellaneous Materials……Page 194
Table 2-192 Heats of Fusion of Organic Compounds……Page 195
Table 2-193 (Live Eqns.) Heats of Vaporization of Inorganic and Organic Compounds……Page 197
Table 2-194 Heat Capacities of the Elements and Inorganic Compounds……Page 202
Table 2-195 Specific Heat [kJ/(kg K)] of Selected Elements……Page 210
Table 2-196 (Live Eqns.) Heat Capacities of Inorganic and Organic Liquids……Page 211
Table 2-197 Specific Heats of Organic Solids……Page 216
Table 2-198 (Live Eqns.) Heat Capacities of Inorganic and Organic Compounds in the Ideal Gas State……Page 219
Table 2-200 Specific Heat Ratio, Cp/Cv, for Air……Page 224
Table 2-210 Phosphoric Acid……Page 225
Table 2-218 Zinc Sulfate……Page 226
Units Conversions……Page 227
Table 2-220 Heats and Free Energies of Formation of Inorganic Compounds……Page 228
Table 2-221 Enthalpies and Gibbs Energies of Formation, Entropies, and Net Enthalpies of Combustion of Inorganic and Organic Compounds at 298.15 K……Page 236
Table 2-222 Ideal Gas Sensible Enthalpies, hT – h298 (kJ/kgmol), of Combustion Products……Page 240
Table 2-223 Ideal Gas Entropies, s°, kJ/kgmol K, of Combustion Products……Page 241
Table 2-224 Heats of Solution of Inorganic Compounds in Water……Page 242
Table 2-357 Thermodynamic Properties of Water Substance along the Melting Line……Page 245
Contributors……Page 246
General References……Page 248
General……Page 252
The Real-Number System……Page 253
Algebraic Inequalities……Page 254
Plane Geometric Figures with Curved Boundaries……Page 255
Solids Bounded by Curved Surfaces……Page 256
Operations on Algebraic Expressions……Page 257
Progressions……Page 258
Theory of Equations……Page 259
Plane Analytic Geometry……Page 261
Solid Analytic Geometry……Page 263
Functions of Circular Trigonometry……Page 265
Inverse Trigonometric Functions……Page 266
Hyperbolic Trigonometry……Page 267
Differential Calculus……Page 268
Multivariable Calculus Applied to Thermodynamics……Page 271
Integral Calculus……Page 272
Definitions……Page 275
Tests for Convergence and Divergence……Page 276
Series Summation and Identities……Page 277
Elementary Complex Functions……Page 278
Complex Functions (Analytic)……Page 279
Ordinary Differential Equations……Page 280
Ordinary Differential Equations of Higher Order……Page 281
Special Differential Equations……Page 282
Partial Differential Equations……Page 283
Difference Equations……Page 286
Classification of Integral Equations……Page 287
Methods of Solution……Page 288
LaPlace Transform……Page 289
z-Transform……Page 290
Matrix Algebra and Matrix Computations……Page 291
Matrix Algebra……Page 292
Matrix Computations……Page 293
Introduction……Page 294
Numerical Solution of Nonlinear Equations in One Variable……Page 295
Interpolation and Finite Differences……Page 296
Numerical Integration (Quadrature)……Page 298
Numerical Solution of Ordinary Differential Equations as Initial Value Problems……Page 299
Ordinary Differential Equations-Boundary Value Problems……Page 302
Monte Carlo Simulations……Page 305
Numerical Solution of Partial Differential Equations……Page 306
Fast Fourier Transform……Page 309
Introduction……Page 310
Conditions for Optimality……Page 311
Strategies of Optimization……Page 312
Introduction……Page 314
Enumeration Data and Probability Distributions……Page 316
Measurement Data and Sampling Densities……Page 317
Tests of Hypothesis……Page 321
Least Squares……Page 328
Factorial Design of Experiments and Analysis of Variance……Page 332
Dimensional Analysis……Page 334
Process Simulation……Page 335
Intelligent Systems in Process Engineering……Page 336
Contributors……Page 337
Nomenclature and Units……Page 338
Postulate 2 (First Law of Thermodynamics)……Page 339
Variables, Definitions and Relationships……Page 340
Constant-Composition Systems……Page 341
Systems of Variable Composition……Page 343
Ideal Gas Mixtures……Page 344
Fundamental Residual-Property Relation……Page 345
Fundamental Excess-Property Relation……Page 346
Property Changes of Mixing……Page 347
Behavior of Binary Liquid Solutions……Page 348
Residual-Property Formulations……Page 350
Properties from PVT Correlations……Page 351
Expressions for the Excess Gibbs Energy……Page 358
The Phase Rule……Page 360
Vapor/Liquid Equilibrium……Page 361
Liquid/Liquid and Vapor/Liquid/Liquid Equilibria……Page 366
Chemical-Reaction Equilibria……Page 367
Calculation of Ideal Work……Page 370
Analysis of Steady-State, Steady-Flow Processes……Page 371
Contributors……Page 373
Nomenclature and Units……Page 375
General References……Page 379
Three-Dimensional Conduction Equation……Page 380
Steady-State Conduction……Page 381
Unsteady-State Conduction……Page 382
Coefficient of Heat Transfer……Page 384
Natural Convection……Page 385
Forced Convection……Page 386
Liquid Metals……Page 391
Condensation……Page 392
Boiling (Vaporization) of Liquids……Page 394
Nomenclature for Radiative Transfer……Page 395
Nature of Thermal Radiation……Page 396
Radiative Exchange between Surfaces and Solids……Page 397
Emissivities of Combustion Products……Page 404
Radiative Exchange between Gases or Suspended Matter and a Boundary……Page 408
Combustion Chamber Heat Transfer……Page 412
Introduction……Page 414
Continuity and Flux Expressions……Page 418
Diffusivity Estimation-Gases……Page 420
Diffusivity Estimation-Liquids……Page 422
Interphase Mass Transfer……Page 426
Contributors……Page 452
Nomenclature and Units……Page 454
Nature of Fluids……Page 455
Kinematics of Fluid Flow……Page 456
Conservation Equations……Page 457
Incompressible Flow in Pipes and Channels……Page 460
Frictional Losses in Pipeline Elements……Page 467
Jet Behavior……Page 471
Flow through Orifices……Page 472
Compressible Flow……Page 473
Multiphase Flow……Page 477
Fluid Distribution……Page 483
Fluid Mixing……Page 485
Tube Banks……Page 487
Beds of Solids……Page 489
Boundary Layer Flows……Page 491
Vortex Shedding……Page 492
Falling Films……Page 493
Hydraulic Transients……Page 495
Turbulence……Page 496
Computational Fluid Dynamics……Page 498
Dimensionless Groups……Page 499
Terminal Settling Velocity……Page 501
Contributors……Page 506
Nomenclature and Units……Page 507
Summary……Page 508
Concentration, Moles, Partial Pressure, and Mole Fraction……Page 510
Reaction Time in Flow Reactors……Page 512
Multiple Reactions and Stoichiometric Balances……Page 513
Mechanisms of Some Complex Reactions……Page 515
Catalysis by Solids: Langmuir-Hinshelwood Mechanism……Page 516
Chemical Equilibrium……Page 518
Integration of Rate Equations……Page 519
Batch Reactors……Page 520
Continuous Stirred Tank Reactors (CSTR)……Page 522
Tubular and Packed Bed Flow Reactors……Page 524
Recycle and Separation Modes……Page 525
Heat Effects……Page 526
Unsteady Conditions with Accumulation Terms……Page 527
Nonideal Behavior……Page 528
Optimum Conditions……Page 530
Heterogeneous Reactions……Page 531
Equipment……Page 532
P1. Equilibrium of Formation of Ethylbenzene……Page 533
P4. Batch Reaction with Heat Transfer……Page 534
P7. Rate Equations from CSTR Data……Page 535
P10. Filling and Unsteady Operating Period of a CSTR……Page 536
P14. Minimum Residence Time in a PFR……Page 537
P16. Pressure Drop and Conversion in a PFR……Page 538
Contributors……Page 539
Nomenclature……Page 541
Process Dynamics and Mathematical Models……Page 542
Feedback Control System Characteristics……Page 549
Controller Tuning……Page 551
Advanced Control Techniques……Page 554
Multivariable Control Problems……Page 560
Model Predictive Control……Page 563
Real-Time Process Optimization……Page 565
Process and Instrumentation Diagrams……Page 569
Control of Heat Exchangers……Page 570
Chemical Reactors……Page 571
Controlling Evaporators……Page 573
Drying Operations……Page 574
Batch versus Continuous Processes……Page 575
Batch Automation Functions……Page 577
Batch Production Facilities……Page 579
Structured Batch Logic……Page 580
General Considerations……Page 581
Temperature Measurements……Page 583
Pressure Measurements……Page 585
Flow Measurements……Page 586
Level Measurements……Page 587
Chemical Composition Analyzers……Page 588
Moisture Measurement……Page 589
Sampling Systems for Process Analyzers……Page 590
Digital Systems……Page 591
Alarms……Page 593
Hierarchy of Information Systems……Page 594
Distributed Control Systems……Page 595
Distributed Database and the Database Manager……Page 596
Single-Loop Controls……Page 597
Intercomputer Communications……Page 598
Electronic and Pneumatic Controllers……Page 599
Control Valves……Page 602
Other Process Valves……Page 615
Regulators……Page 617
Role of Automation in Plant Safety……Page 619
Considerations in Implementation of Safety Interlock Systems……Page 620
Interlocks……Page 621
Testing……Page 622
Contributors……Page 623
Nomenclature and Units……Page 625
Annual Costs, Profits, and Cash Flows……Page 627
Depreciation……Page 629
Traditional Measures of Profitability……Page 630
Time Value of Money……Page 632
Modern Measures of Profitability……Page 635
Sensitivity Analysis……Page 641
Learning Curves……Page 642
Risk and Uncertainty……Page 645
Inflation……Page 656
Principles of Accounting……Page 661
Financing Assets by Equity and Debt……Page 664
Comparative Company Data……Page 667
Cost of Capital……Page 669
Allocation of Overheads……Page 670
Inventory Evaluation and Control……Page 671
Working Capital……Page 674
Manufacturing-Cost Estimation……Page 676
One Main Product Plus By-Products……Page 677
Two Main Products……Page 678
Rapid Manufacturing-Cost Estimates……Page 679
Manufacturing Cost as a Basis for Product Pricing……Page 680
Standard Costs for Budgetary Control……Page 681
Contribution Analysis……Page 683
Valuation of Recycled Heat Energy……Page 684
Types and Accuracy of Estimates……Page 685
Rapid Estimations……Page 686
Equipment Costs……Page 694
Electrical and Instrumentation Estimation……Page 695
Auxiliaries Estimation……Page 696
Use of Computers in Cost Estimation……Page 697
Construction Time……Page 698
Project Control……Page 699
Overseas Construction Costs……Page 700
Contributors……Page 702
Nomenclature and Units……Page 704
Total Pressure……Page 706
Static Pressure……Page 707
Total Temperature……Page 708
Velocity Measurements……Page 709
Head Meters……Page 712
Area Meters……Page 719
Weirs……Page 720
Introduction……Page 721
Terminology……Page 722
Pump Selection……Page 724
Centrifugal Pumps……Page 725
Propeller and Turbine Pumps……Page 730
Positive-Displacement Pumps……Page 732
Electromagnetic Pumps……Page 736
Vibration Monitoring……Page 737
Compression of Gases……Page 738
Fans and Blowers……Page 746
Compressors……Page 748
Ejectors……Page 757
Vacuum Systems……Page 758
Sealing of Rotating Shafts……Page 759
Bearings……Page 765
Codes and Standards……Page 768
Pipe-System Materials……Page 769
Metallic Pipe Systems: Carbon Steel and Stainless Steel……Page 771
Cast Iron, Ductile Iron, and High-Silicon Iron……Page 793
Nonferrous-Metal Piping Systems……Page 794
Nonmetallic Pipe and Lined Pipe Systems……Page 797
Piping-System Design……Page 803
Fabrication, Assembly, and Erection……Page 827
Examination, Inspection, and Testing……Page 828
Heat Tracing of Piping Systems……Page 834
Storage of Liquids……Page 839
Storage of Gases……Page 842
Bulk Transport of Fluids……Page 843
Pressure Vessels……Page 845
Contributors……Page 854
Introduction to Thermal Design……Page 857
Thermal Design for Single-Phase Heat Transfer……Page 858
Thermal Design of Condensers……Page 864
Thermal Design of Evaporators……Page 866
Batch Operations: Heating and Cooling of Vessels……Page 871
Heating and Cooling of Tanks……Page 873
Extended or Finned Surfaces……Page 875
Fouling and Scaling……Page 876
Thermal Design for Solids Processing……Page 877
Types and Definitions……Page 886
General Design Considerations……Page 888
Principal Types of Construction……Page 889
Tube-Side Construction……Page 893
Shell-Side Construction……Page 894
Baffles and Tube Bundles……Page 895
Corrosion in Heat Exchangers……Page 896
Shell-and-Tube Exchanger Costs……Page 897
Multitube Hairpins……Page 899
Air Cooled Heat Exchangers……Page 900
Gasketed-Plate Exchangers……Page 905
Spiral-Plate Exchangers……Page 908
Spiral-Tube Exchangers (STE)……Page 909
PVDF Heat Exchangers……Page 910
Equipment for Solidification……Page 911
Equipment for Fusion of Solids……Page 914
Heat-Transfer Equipment for Divided Solids……Page 915
Insulation Materials……Page 921
System Selection……Page 922
Economic Thickness of Insulation……Page 923
Installation Practice……Page 926
Air-Conditioning Equipment……Page 927
Unitary Refrigerant-Based Air-Conditioning Systems……Page 928
Introduction……Page 929
Mechanical Refrigeration (Vapor-Compression Systems)……Page 930
Equipment……Page 932
Other Refrigeration Systems Applied in the Industry……Page 941
Properties of Solids……Page 949
Refrigeration and Liquifaction……Page 951
Process Equipment……Page 953
Separation and Purification Systems……Page 955
Storage and Transfer Systems……Page 957
Safety……Page 959
Primary Design Problems……Page 960
Evaporator Types and Applications……Page 961
Vapor-Liquid Separation……Page 964
Evaporator Arrangement……Page 966
Evaporator Calculations……Page 968
Evaporator Accessories……Page 969
Evaporator Operation……Page 971
Contributors……Page 972
Nomenclature and Units……Page 973
Relation between Wet-Bulb and Adiabatic-Saturation Temperatures……Page 974
Use of Psychrometric Charts……Page 975
Measurement of Humidity……Page 984
Cooling-Tower Theory……Page 985
Mechanical-Draft Towers……Page 986
Cooling-Tower Operation……Page 988
Natural-Draft Towers……Page 991
Spray Ponds……Page 992
Cooling Ponds……Page 994
Introduction……Page 996
Application of Psychrometry to Drying……Page 998
General Conditions for Dryin……Page 1000
Periods of Drying……Page 1002
Critical Moisture Content……Page 1004
Analysis of Drying Data Tests on Plant Dryers……Page 1005
Classification of Dryers……Page 1007
Drying Tests……Page 1009
Batch Tray and Dryers……Page 1013
Batch Through-Circulation Dryers……Page 1015
Continuous Tunnel Dryers……Page 1018
Rotary Dryers……Page 1023
Agitated Dryers……Page 1035
Gravity Dryers……Page 1042
Direct-Heat Vibrating-Conveyor Dryers……Page 1047
Dispersion Dryers……Page 1048
Contributors……Page 1062
Nomenclature and Units……Page 1064
Complex Distillation Operations……Page 1065
Related Separation Operations……Page 1066
Synthesis of Multicomponent Separation Systems……Page 1070
Graphical K-Value Correlations……Page 1071
Analytical K-Value Correlations……Page 1077
Analysis of Elements……Page 1083
Analysis of Units……Page 1084
Other Units and Complex Processes……Page 1085
Isothermal Flash……Page 1086
Introduction……Page 1087
McCabe-Thiele Method……Page 1088
Fenske-Underwood-Gilliland (FUG) Shortcut Method……Page 1096
Kremser Group Method……Page 1098
Introduction……Page 1100
Thiele-Geddes Stage-by-Stage Method for Simple Distillation……Page 1101
Equation-Tearing Procedures Using the Tridiagonal-Matrix Algorithm……Page 1104
Simultaneous-Correction Procedures……Page 1109
Inside-Out Methods……Page 1110
Homotopy-Continuation Methods……Page 1112
Rate-Based Models……Page 1113
Azeotropism……Page 1115
Residue Curve Maps and Distillation Region Diagrams……Page 1117
Applications of RCM and DRD……Page 1119
Extension to Batch Distillation……Page 1127
Azeotropic Distillation……Page 1129
Extractive Distillation……Page 1136
Reactive Distillation……Page 1142
Introduction……Page 1146
Characterization of Petroleum and Petroleum Fractions……Page 1147
Design Procedures……Page 1150
Control……Page 1157
Approximate Calculation Procedures for Binary Mixtures……Page 1158
Operating Methods……Page 1159
Calculational Methods……Page 1161
Rapid Solution Method……Page 1164
Ideal Binary Distillation……Page 1165
Multicomponent Distillation……Page 1166
Packed Column……Page 1169
Contributors……Page 1170
Nomenclature……Page 1172
Equilibrium Data……Page 1173
Calculation of Liquid-to-Gas Ratio……Page 1174
Importance of Design Diagrams……Page 1175
Use of Operating Curve……Page 1177
Stripping Equations……Page 1178
Use of HETP Data for Absorber Design……Page 1179
Stripping Equations……Page 1180
Overview……Page 1181
Equipment Considerations……Page 1182
Example 6: Solvent Rate for Absorption……Page 1183
Example 7: Multicomponent Absorption, Dilute Case……Page 1184
Example 8: Multicomponent Absorption, Concentrated Case……Page 1185
Applicability of Physical Design Methods……Page 1186
Traditional Design Method……Page 1187
Scaling Up from Laboratory or Pilot-Plant Data……Page 1188
Principles of Rigorous Absorber Design……Page 1189
Estimation of kL for Irreversible Reactions……Page 1190
Simultaneous Absorption of Two Reacting Gases……Page 1191
Gas-Liquid Contacting Systems……Page 1192
Plate Columns……Page 1193
Packed Columns……Page 1207
Liquid-Dispersed Contactors……Page 1223
Wetted-Wall Columns……Page 1225
Gas-Liquid-Column Economics……Page 1227
Liquid-in-Gas Dispersions……Page 1231
Gas-in-Liquid Dispersions……Page 1238
Gas Sampling……Page 1250
Procedures for Design and Selection of Collection Devices……Page 1251
Collection Equipment……Page 1252
Liquid-Phase Continuous Systems……Page 1264
Contributors……Page 1268
Nomenclature……Page 1269
Uses for Liquid-Liquid Extraction……Page 1271
Definitions……Page 1272
Phase Diagrams……Page 1273
Hydrogen-Bonding Interactions……Page 1275
Desirable Solvent Properties……Page 1276
Countercurrent Theoretical Stages……Page 1283
Countercurrent Mass-Transfer-Unit Calculations……Page 1286
Fractionation Stages……Page 1287
Rates of Mass Transfer……Page 1289
Settlers……Page 1292
Cyclones……Page 1293
Settler Auxiliaries……Page 1294
Mixer-Settler Combinations……Page 1295
Continuous (Differential) Contact Equipment……Page 1296
Contributors……Page 1315
Nomenclature and Units……Page 1317
Introduction……Page 1318
Design Strategy……Page 1319
Classifications and Characterizations……Page 1322
Physical Properties……Page 1323
General Considerations……Page 1325
Single Component or Exchange……Page 1326
Multiple Components or Exchanges……Page 1329
Rate and Dispersion Factors……Page 1331
Intraparticle Mass Transfer……Page 1332
Axial Dispersion in Packed Beds……Page 1334
Rate Equations……Page 1335
Batch Adsorption……Page 1339
Solid Diffusion Control……Page 1340
Combined Resistances……Page 1342
Local Equilibrium Theory……Page 1344
Constant Pattern Behavior for Favorable Isotherms……Page 1346
Square Root Spreading for Linear Isotherms……Page 1350
Numerical Methods and Characterization of Wave Shape……Page 1351
Classification……Page 1352
Characterization of Experimental Chromatograms……Page 1354
Prediction of Chromatographic Behavior……Page 1356
Design for Trace Solute Separations……Page 1361
Temperature Swing Adsorption……Page 1362
Pressure-Swing Adsorption……Page 1363
Purge/Concentration Swing Adsorption……Page 1365
Ion Exchange……Page 1366
Parametric Pumping……Page 1367
Other Adsorption Cycles……Page 1369
Adsorption……Page 1370
Ion Exchange……Page 1378
Contributors……Page 1381
Gas-Solid Systems……Page 1382
Design of Fluidized-Bed Systems……Page 1384
Uses of Fluidized Beds……Page 1394
Nomenclature……Page 1399
Particle Measurements……Page 1402
Mechanisms of Dust Collection……Page 1404
Performance of Dust Collectors……Page 1405
Dust-Collection Equipment……Page 1406
Contributors……Page 1440
Nomenclature……Page 1443
Fluid Mixing Technology……Page 1444
Introductory Fluid Mechanics……Page 1445
Mixing Equipment……Page 1447
Fluid Behavior in Mixing Vessels……Page 1449
Design of Agitation Equipment……Page 1451
Blending……Page 1452
Gas-Liquid Systems……Page 1455
Stagewise Equipment: Mixer-Settlers……Page 1457
Fluid Motion……Page 1461
Jackets and Coils of Agitated Vessels……Page 1462
Computational Fluid Dynamics……Page 1463
Batch Mixers……Page 1464
Continuous Mixers……Page 1468
Process Design Considerations……Page 1471
Heating and Cooling Mixers……Page 1473
Principles of Crystallization……Page 1474
Crystallization Equipment……Page 1483
Information Required to Specify a Crystallizer……Page 1489
Crystallizer Operation……Page 1490
Crystallizer Costs……Page 1493
Leaching Equipment……Page 1494
Selection or Design of a Leaching Process……Page 1497
General References……Page 1498
Classification of Settleable Solids; Sedimentation Tests……Page 1499
Thickeners……Page 1503
Clarifiers……Page 1504
Components and Accessories for Sedimentation Units……Page 1506
Instrumentation……Page 1509
Continuous Countercurrent Decantation……Page 1510
Thickener Costs……Page 1512
Contributors……Page 1513
Introduction……Page 1515
Introduction……Page 1516
Theory of Sampling……Page 1517
Criteria for Sampler Design……Page 1518
Selecting a Sampler……Page 1519
Sampling Equipment Cost Data……Page 1521
Mixing……Page 1522
Optical Sorting……Page 1529
Screening……Page 1530
Wet Classification……Page 1535
Jigging……Page 1542
Tabling……Page 1543
Spiral Concentration……Page 1546
Dense-Media Separation……Page 1548
Magnetic Separation……Page 1552
Superconducting Magnetic Separation……Page 1559
Electrostatic Separation……Page 1562
General Aspects……Page 1568
Fundamentals……Page 1570
Equipment……Page 1571
Flotation Plant Operation……Page 1575
Contributors……Page 1578
Nomenclature and Units for Size Enlargement and Practice……Page 1580
Nomenclature and Units……Page 1581
Particle-Size Distribution……Page 1582
Particle-Size Measurement……Page 1584
Properties of Solids……Page 1587
Operations……Page 1588
Attainable Product Size and Energy Required……Page 1590
Size Reduction Combined with Other Operations……Page 1592
Simulation of Milling Circuits……Page 1595
Classification and Selection of Equipment……Page 1599
Jaw Crushers……Page 1600
Gyratory Crushers……Page 1601
Roll Crushers……Page 1604
Impact Breakers……Page 1605
Pan Crushers……Page 1607
Tumbling Mills……Page 1608
Stirred Media Mills……Page 1612
Vibratory Mills……Page 1614
Particle-Size Classifiers Used with Grinding Mills……Page 1616
Hammer Mills……Page 1618
Ring-Roller Mills……Page 1620
Dispersion and Colloid Mills……Page 1622
Fluid-Energy or Jet Mills……Page 1624
Cereals and Other Vegetable Products……Page 1625
Ores and Minerals……Page 1626
Fertilizers and Phosphates……Page 1629
Cement, Lime, and Gypsum……Page 1630
Chemicals, Pigments, and Soaps……Page 1631
Processing Waste……Page 1632
Scope and Applications……Page 1633
Approaching the Design of Size-Enlargement Processes……Page 1634
Product Characterization……Page 1636
Wetting……Page 1638
Growth and Consolidation……Page 1641
Breakage……Page 1645
Powder Mechanics & Powder Compaction……Page 1647
Tumbling Granulators……Page 1650
Mixer Granulators……Page 1653
Fluidized-Bed and Related Granulators……Page 1654
Centrifugal Granulators……Page 1656
Spray Processes……Page 1657
Pressure Compaction Processes……Page 1658
Thermal Processes……Page 1661
Modeling Individual Growth Mechanisms……Page 1662
Solution of the Population Balance……Page 1664
Simulation of Granulation Circuits with Recycle……Page 1666
Contributors……Page 1667
Physical-Distribution Concept……Page 1669
Conveyor Selection……Page 1670
Screw Conveyors……Page 1671
Belt Conveyors……Page 1674
Bucket Elevators……Page 1676
Vibrating or Oscillating Conveyors……Page 1680
Continuous-Flow Conveyors……Page 1683
Pneumatic Conveyors……Page 1685
Storage Bins, Silos, and Hoppers……Page 1693
Flow-Assisting Devices and Feeders……Page 1697
Weighing of Bulk Solids……Page 1698
Packaging of Solid and Liquid Products and Handling of Packages……Page 1702
Liquid Packaging……Page 1710
Solids Packaging……Page 1712
Packaging Operation……Page 1717
Package Handling and Storage……Page 1733
Transport of Bulk Solids……Page 1738
Transport of Packaged Items……Page 1740
Contributors……Page 1745
Introduction……Page 1747
Progressive Freezing……Page 1748
Zone Melting……Page 1749
Melt Crystallization from the Bulk……Page 1750
Falling-Film Crystallization……Page 1755
Physical Properties of Pure Supercritical Fluids……Page 1758
Phase Equilibria……Page 1759
Applications……Page 1761
Separation Processes Based Primarily on Action in an Electric Field……Page 1764
Surface-Based Solid-Liquid Separations Involving a Second Liquid Phase……Page 1772
Adsorptive-Bubble Separation Methods……Page 1774
Background and Definitions……Page 1781
Electrodialysis……Page 1786
Reverse Osmosis and Nanofiltration……Page 1792
Ultrafiltration……Page 1796
Microfiltration……Page 1801
Gas-Separation Membranes……Page 1805
Pervaporation……Page 1811
General Background……Page 1813
Initial Product Harvest and Concentration……Page 1815
Initial Purification……Page 1817
Final Purification and Product Formulation……Page 1819
Integration of Fermentation and Downstream Processing Operations……Page 1823
Contributors……Page 1824
Nomenclature and Units……Page 1826
Mathematical Models……Page 1827
Chemical Kinetic Laws……Page 1828
Case Studies……Page 1832
Reactor Efficiency……Page 1838
Tracer Response……Page 1839
Tracer Equations……Page 1840
Chemical Conversion……Page 1844
Multiplicity and Stability……Page 1846
Catalysis……Page 1848
Catalysis by Solids……Page 1849
Liquid Phase……Page 1855
Gas Phase……Page 1856
Supercritical Conditions……Page 1857
Polymerization……Page 1858
Multiple Fixed Beds……Page 1859
Multitubular Reactors……Page 1860
Thin Beds and Wire Gauzes……Page 1861
Mass Transfer Coefficients……Page 1862
Countercurrent Absorption Towers……Page 1864
Second-Order Reaction in a Liquid Film……Page 1865
Scale-Up from Laboratory Data……Page 1866
Industrial Gas-Liquid Reaction Processes……Page 1867
Laboratory Studies……Page 1873
Overall Rate Equations with Diffusional Resistances……Page 1875
Flooded Fixed Bed Reactors……Page 1876
Trickle Bed Parameters……Page 1877
Reactions of Solids……Page 1878
Solid Reaction Examples……Page 1879
Equipment and Processes……Page 1881
References for Reactions of Solids……Page 1884
Contributors……Page 1885
Nomenclature and Units……Page 1886
Introduction to Biochemical Engineering……Page 1887
Biological Concepts……Page 1888
Cell and Tissue Cultures……Page 1890
Fermenters……Page 1891
Process Considerations……Page 1894
Product Recovery……Page 1899
Process Modeling……Page 1900
Mathematical Analysis……Page 1901
Plant Cell and Tissue Cultures……Page 1902
Enzymatic Reaction Kinetics……Page 1905
Contributors……Page 1907
List of Abbreviations……Page 1909
Multimedia Approach to Environmental Regulations in the United States……Page 1910
United States Air Quality Legislation and Regulations……Page 1911
United States Water Quality Legislation and Regulations……Page 1915
United States Solid Waste Legislation and Regulations……Page 1918
Introduction……Page 1919
Pollution-Prevention Hierarchy……Page 1920
Multimedia Analysis and Life-Cycle Analysis……Page 1921
Pollution-Prevention Assessment Procedures……Page 1922
Assessment Phase Material Balance Calculations……Page 1923
Barriers and Incentives to Pollution Prevention……Page 1924
Economic Considerations Association with Pollution-Prevention Programs……Page 1925
Pollution Prevention at the Domestic and Office Levels……Page 1926
Future Trends……Page 1927
Introduction……Page 1928
A Source-Control-Problem Strategy……Page 1935
Dispersion from Stack……Page 1938
Source Control of Gaseous Emissions……Page 1941
Source Control of Particulate Emissions……Page 1952
Emissions Measurement……Page 1953
Introduction……Page 1964
United States Legislation, Regulations, and Governmental Agencies……Page 1965
Wastewater Characteristics……Page 1966
Pretreatment……Page 1969
Primary Treatment……Page 1970
Secondary Treatment……Page 1971
Physical-Chemical Treatment……Page 1982
Sludge Processing……Page 1984
Sludge Disposal……Page 1985
United States Legislation, Regulations, and Governmental Agencies……Page 1986
Generation of Solid Wastes……Page 1987
On-Site Handling, Storage, and Processing……Page 1990
Collection of Solid Wastes……Page 1992
Transfer and Transport……Page 1995
Processing and Resource Recovery……Page 1997
Regulations Applicable to Municipal Waste Combustors……Page 2005
Ultimate Disposal……Page 2008
Planning……Page 2017
Contributors……Page 2018
Introduction: What Is Process Safety?……Page 2021
Inherently Safer and More User-Friendly Design……Page 2022
Incident Investigation and Human Error……Page 2023
Key Procedures……Page 2024
Hazard Analysis……Page 2025
Risk Analysis……Page 2029
Guidelines for Estimating Damage……Page 2034
Project Review and Audit Processes……Page 2038
Pressure Relief Systems……Page 2043
Emergency Relief Device Effluent Collection and Handling……Page 2048
Flame Arresters……Page 2055
Storage and Handling of Hazardous Materials……Page 2060
Reactive Chemicals……Page 2066
Combustion and Flammability Hazards……Page 2068
Gas Explosions……Page 2070
Unconfined Vapor Cloud Explosions (UVCEs) and Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapor Explosions (BLEVEs)……Page 2074
Dust Explosions……Page 2077
Static Electricity……Page 2087
Hazards of Vacuum……Page 2090
Hazards of Inert Gases……Page 2092
Gas Dispersion……Page 2095
Discharge Rates from Punctured Lines and Vessels……Page 2101
Contributors……Page 2110
Introduction……Page 2112
Solid Fuels……Page 2113
Liquid Fuels……Page 2117
Gaseous Fuels……Page 2120
Coal Conversion……Page 2122
Combustion Background……Page 2134
Combustion of Solid Fuels……Page 2138
Combustion of Liquid Fuels……Page 2143
Combustion of Gaseous Fuels……Page 2146
Boilers……Page 2149
Process Heating Equipment……Page 2156
Industrial Furnaces……Page 2157
Cogeneration……Page 2160
Regeneration……Page 2161
Recuperators……Page 2162
Fuel Cells……Page 2164
Contributors……Page 2170
Fluid Corrosion: Localized……Page 2172
Fluid Corrosion: Structural……Page 2175
Factors Influencing Corrosion……Page 2176
High-Temperature Attack……Page 2177
Combating Corrosion……Page 2178
Corrosion-Testing Methods……Page 2179
Corrosion Testing: Laboratory Tests……Page 2180
Corrosion Testing: Plant Tests……Page 2193
Ferrous Metals and Alloys……Page 2197
Nonferrous Metals and Alloys……Page 2204
Inorganic Nonmetallics……Page 2206
Thermoplastics……Page 2212
High-Temperature Materials……Page 2219
Contributors……Page 2234
Nomenclature……Page 2236
Alternating-Current Motors, Constant Speed……Page 2237
Alternating-Current Motors, Wound-Rotor Induction……Page 2240
Direct-Current Motors……Page 2241
Motor Enclosures……Page 2242
Motor Control……Page 2243
Internal-Combustion Engines……Page 2247
Stage and Valve Options……Page 2250
Performance and Efficiency……Page 2251
Turbine Control……Page 2253
Selecting a Turbine……Page 2255
Operating Problems……Page 2260
Major Gas Turbine Components……Page 2262
Turbine Operation Characteristics……Page 2271
Types of Fuel……Page 2272
Functional Description……Page 2274
Radial Inflow Design……Page 2275
Variable Nozzles……Page 2276
Condensing Streams……Page 2277
Buffer-Gas System……Page 2278
Basic Principles……Page 2279
Operating Behavior……Page 2280
Design Considerations……Page 2281
Installation Features……Page 2282
Bearings……Page 2287
Power Transmission without Speed Change……Page 2290
Power Transmission with Speed Change……Page 2293
Lubrication of Power Transmission Equipment……Page 2294
Contributors……Page 2297
References……Page 2299
Glossary……Page 2300
Overview……Page 2301
Technical Barriers to Accurate Understanding……Page 2303
Personnel Barriers to Accurate Understanding……Page 2304
Overall Guidelines……Page 2305
Analyst Preparation……Page 2306
Plant Model Preparation……Page 2309
Plant Preparation……Page 2310
Laboratory Preparation……Page 2312
The Problem……Page 2313
Identification……Page 2316
Validation……Page 2318
Initial Constraint Analysis and Adjustments……Page 2320
Reconciliation……Page 2321
Rectification……Page 2325
Interpretation……Page 2326
A……Page 2333
B……Page 2341
C……Page 2347
D……Page 2367
E……Page 2375
F……Page 2383
G……Page 2391
H……Page 2398
I……Page 2402
J……Page 2405
L……Page 2406
M……Page 2410
N……Page 2421
O……Page 2423
P……Page 2424
R……Page 2442
S……Page 2447
T……Page 2461
U……Page 2466
V……Page 2467
W……Page 2468
Z……Page 2470
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