Loss Prevention: Hazard Idenitification, Assessment and Control (Volume 2)

Frank Lees9780750615471, 0-7506-1547-8

Over the last three decades the process industries have grown very rapidly, with corresponding increases in the quantities of hazardous materials in process, storage or transport. Plants are becoming larger and are often situated in or close to densely populated areas. Increased hazard of loss of life or property is continually highlighted with incidents such as Flixborough, Bhopal, Chernobyl and Piper Alpha. Increasing attention must therefore be paid to the control of these hazards, and in particular the need to develop a comprehensive approach to the avoidance of human and economic loss; this is loss prevention. Frank Lees has completely rewritten this classic reference work on loss prevention, bringing every aspect up to date. New chapters are included on computers, artificial intelligence and expert systems, and new appendices feature recent disasters such as Bhopal and Piper Alpha. The many thousands of references have been updated along with standards and codes of practice. Written in a clear and concise style, ‘Loss Prevention in the Process Industries’ covers traditional areas of personal safety as well as the more technological aspects and thus provides balanced and in-depth coverage of the whole field of safety and loss prevention.

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Table of contents :
Preface to Second Edition……Page 5
Preface to First Edition……Page 7
Acknowledgements……Page 11
Notation……Page 13
Use of References……Page 14
Contents of Volume 1……Page 15
Contents of Volume 2……Page 20
Contents of Volume 3……Page 25
16 Fire……Page 29
27 Information Feedback……Page 0
16.2 Flammability of Gases and Vapours……Page 43
16.3 Combustion Phenomena……Page 56
16.4 Flamability of aerosols……Page 83
16.5 Ignition sources……Page 86
16.6 Self-heating……Page 97
16.7 Static Electricity……Page 113
16.8 Electrical Equipment……Page 161
16.9 Hazardous Area Classification……Page 168
16.10 Ignition Models……Page 179
16.11 Fire in Process Plant……Page 187
16.12 Flames……Page 193
16.13 Radiant Heat Transfer……Page 194
16.14 Vapour Cloud Fires……Page 207
16.15 Fireballs……Page 210
16.16 Fireballs from Explosives……Page 222
16.17 Pool Fires……Page 225
16.18 Flares……Page 241
16.19 Jet Flames……Page 249
16.20 Engulfing Fires……Page 258
16.22 Effects of Fire: Injury……Page 274
16.23 Fire Protection of Process Plant……Page 289
16.24 Passive Fire Protection……Page 291
16.25 Fire Fighting Agents……Page 297
16.28 Fire Protection Using Foam……Page 306
16.29 Fire Protection Using Dry Chemicals……Page 309
16.30 Fire Protection Using Vaporizing Liquids……Page 310
16.31 Fire Protection Using Inert Gas……Page 312
16.32 Fire Protection Using Special Methods……Page 313
16.34 Fire Protection Applications……Page 314
16.35 Fire Fighting in Process Plant……Page 316
16.36 Fire and Fire Protection in Buildings……Page 320
16.38 Fire Hazard……Page 328
16.39 Hazard Range of Fire……Page 330
16.40 Notation……Page 333
17 Explosion……Page 347
17.1 Explosion……Page 351
17.2 Detonation……Page 352
17.3 Explosives……Page 365
17.4 Explosion Energy……Page 368
17.5 Deflagration Inside Plant……Page 377
17.6 Detonation Inside Plant……Page 382
17.7 Explosions in Closed Vessels……Page 383
17.8 Explosions in Buildings……Page 393
17.9 Explosions in Large Enclosures……Page 395
17.10 Explosion Prevention……Page 396
17.11 Explosion Protection……Page 399
17.12 Explosion Venting of Vessels……Page 407
17.13 Explosion Venting of Ducts and Pipes……Page 431
17.14 Explosion Relief of Buildings……Page 436
17.15 Explosion Relief of Large Enclosures……Page 439
17.16 Venting of Reactors……Page 444
17.17 Venting of Reactors and Vessels: DIERS……Page 448
17.18 Venting of Reactors and Vessels: Vent Flow……Page 451
17.19 Venting of Reactors and Vessels: Vent Sizing……Page 453
17.20 Venting of Reactors and Vessels: Leung Model……Page 458
17.21 Venting of Reactors and Vessels: ICI Scheme……Page 460
17.22 Venting of Reactors: Relief Disposal……Page 465
17.23 Venting of Reactors: CCPS Work……Page 469
17.24 Venting of Storage Vessels……Page 470
17.25 Explosive Shock in Air……Page 471
17.26 Condensed Phase Explosions……Page 474
17.27 Vessel Burst Explosions……Page 482
17.28 Vapour Cloud Explosions……Page 486
17.29 Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapour Explosions……Page 522
17.30 Explosions in Process Plant……Page 530
17.31 Effects of Explosions……Page 532
17.32 Explosion Damage to Structures……Page 537
17.34 Explosion Damage to Missiles……Page 553
17.35 Explosion Damaage to Plant by Missiles……Page 573
17.36 Explosion of a Cased Explosive……Page 575
17.37 Explosion of an Explosive Load……Page 580
17.38 Explosion Injury to Persons Outdoors……Page 582
17.39 Explosion Injury to Persons Indoors……Page 589
17.40 Explosion Injury from Flying Glass……Page 594
17.41 Explosion Injury from Penetrating Fragments……Page 603
17.43 Dust Explosion……Page 608
17.44 Dust Explosibility Characteristics……Page 612
17.45 Dust Ignition Sources……Page 621
17.46 Dust Explosion Prevention……Page 625
17.47 Dust Explosion Protection……Page 626
17.48 Dust Explosion Venting……Page 629
17.50 Dust Fires……Page 648
17.51 Explosion Hazard……Page 649
17.52 Hazard Range of Explosions……Page 653
17.53 Notation……Page 654
18 Toxic Release……Page 673
18.1 Toxic Effects……Page 674
18.2 Toxic Substances……Page 681
18.3 Toxicity Assessment……Page 682
18.4 Control of Toxic Hazard: Regulatory Controls……Page 687
18.5 Hygiene Standards……Page 689
18.7 Carcinogens……Page 694
18.8 Dusts……Page 698
18.9 Metals……Page 699
18.10 Emergency Exposure Limits……Page 700
18.11 Gas Toxicity……Page 701
18.12 Gas Toxicity: Experimental Determination……Page 702
18.13 Gas Toxicity: Physiological Factors……Page 704
18.14 Gas Toxicity: Toxicity Data……Page 707
18.15 Gas Toxicity: Vulnerability Model……Page 708
18.16 Gas Toxicity: Major Industrial Gases……Page 710
18.17 Gas Toxicity: MHAP Studies……Page 715
18.18 Gas Toxicity: Chlorine……Page 716
18.19 Gas Toxicity: Green Book Relations……Page 730
18.21 Gast Toxicity: HSE Dangerous Dose……Page 731
18.22 Gas Toxicity: Combustion Gases……Page 734
18.24 Plant Design for Toxic Substances……Page 735
18.25 Toxic Gas Detection……Page 736
18.27 Toxic Release Case Histories……Page 737
18.28 Toxic Release Risk……Page 740
18.29 Chlorine Hazard Assessment……Page 742
18.30 Other Chemicals Hazard Assessment……Page 752
18.32 Notation……Page 754
19.1 Plant Commissioning……Page 757
19.2 Plant Inspection……Page 769
19.3 Pressure Vessel Inspection……Page 775
19.4 Pressure Piping Systems Inspection……Page 779
19.5 Non-Destructive Testing……Page 781
19.6 Materials Verification……Page 784
19.7 Pressure Testing……Page 785
19.8 Leak Testing and Detection……Page 787
19.9 Plant Monitoring……Page 788
19.10 Performance Monitoring……Page 789
19.11 Condition Monitoring……Page 790
19.12 Vibration Monitoring……Page 795
19.13 Corrosion Monitoring……Page 800
19.14 Acoustic Emission Monitoring……Page 801
19.17 Notation……Page 804
20 Plant Operation……Page 806
20.2 Operating Procedures and Instructions……Page 808
20.3 Emergency Procedures……Page 812
20.4 Handover and Permit Systems……Page 813
20.8 Operation and Maintenance……Page 814
20.9 Start-up and Shut-down……Page 815
20.10 Start-up of Refinery Units……Page 816
20.12 Operation of Fired Heaters……Page 818
20.13 Operation of Driers……Page 819
20.14 Operation of Storage……Page 820
20.15 Operational Activities and Hazards……Page 823
20.17 Trip Systems……Page 825
20.19 Exposure of Personnel……Page 826
20.20 Security……Page 827
20.21 Notation……Page 828
21.1 Management of Maintenance……Page 830
21.2 Hazards of Maintenance……Page 833
21.3 Preparation for Maintenance……Page 834
21.5 Purging……Page 838
21.6 Cleaning……Page 839
21.7 Confined Spaces……Page 840
21.9 Maintenance Equipment……Page 849
21.10 Flanged Joints……Page 853
21.11 Hot Work……Page 856
21.12 Tank Cleaning, Repair and Demolition……Page 861
21.13 On-line Repairs……Page 863
21.14 Maintenance of Particular Equipment……Page 864
21.16 Deteriorated Equipment……Page 866
21.17 Some Maintenance Problems……Page 867
21.18 Major Shut-downs……Page 868
21.19 Maintenance System……Page 870
21.20 Spares Inventory……Page 871
21.21 Computer Aids……Page 872
21.22 Modification to Plant……Page 873
21.23 Control of Modifications……Page 874
21.25 Major Plant Extensions……Page 879
21.26 Notation……Page 880
22 Storage……Page 881
22.1 General Considerations……Page 885
22.2 Petroleum Products Storage……Page 886
22.3 Storage Tanks and Vessels……Page 887
22.4 Storage Layout……Page 894
22.5 Venting and Relief……Page 898
22.6 Fire Prevention and Protection……Page 900
22.8 LPG Storage: Pressure Storage……Page 901
22.9 LPG Storage: Refrigerated Storage……Page 915
22.10 LNG Storage……Page 917
22.11 LNG Storage: Refrigerated Storage……Page 918
22.12 Hydrogren Storage……Page 922
22.13 Toxics Storage……Page 923
22.14 High Toxic Hazard Materials: CCPS Guidelines……Page 924
22.16 Ammonia Storage……Page 930
22.17 Ammonia Storage: Pressure Storage……Page 931
22.18 Ammonia Storage: Refrigerated Storage……Page 932
22.19 Ammonia Storage: Stress Corrosion Cracking……Page 935
22.20 Other Chemicals Storage……Page 936
22.21 Bunds……Page 938
22.22 Underground Storage Tanks……Page 943
22.25 Loading and Unloading Facilities……Page 946
22.28 Warehouses……Page 951
22.29 Warehouses: Particular Chemicals Storage……Page 955
22.30 Storage Case Histories……Page 957
22.31 Storage Risk……Page 958
22.32 LPG Storage Hazard Assessment……Page 959
22.34 Ammonia Storage Hazard Assessment……Page 963
22.35 Notation……Page 964
23 Transport……Page 965
23.1 General Considerations……Page 966
23.2 International Codes……Page 970
23.3 Classification, Packaging and Labelling……Page 972
23.4 Transport Containers……Page 976
23.5 Road Transport……Page 977
23.6 Road Transport Environment……Page 980
23.7 Rail Transport……Page 996
23.8 Rail Transport Environment……Page 998
23.10 Waterway Transport……Page 1001
23.11 Pipeline Transport……Page 1002
23.12 Marine Transport: Shipping……Page 1009
23.13 Marine……Page 1011
23.14 Marine Transport: Ports and Harbours……Page 1014
23.16 Marine Transport: Liquefied Flammable Gas……Page 1022
23.18 Marine Transport Environment……Page 1027
23.19 Air Transport……Page 1036
23.21 Transport Case Histories……Page 1042
23.23 Transport Hazard Assessment……Page 1046
23.25 Rail Transport Hazard Assessment……Page 1047
23.26 Tunnel Transport Hazard Assessment……Page 1048
23.27 Pipeline Transport Hazard Assessment……Page 1049
23.28 Marine Transport Hazard Assessment……Page 1051
23.30 Notation……Page 1054
24.1 Disasters and Disaster Planning……Page 1057
24.3 Emergency Scenarios……Page 1059
24.5 Extenal Authorities and Services……Page 1060
24.7 Communication and Control System……Page 1061
24.8 Essential Functions and Nominated Personnel……Page 1063
24.11 Co-operative Planning, Training and Exercises……Page 1065
24.12 Public Relations……Page 1066
24.15 Computer Aids……Page 1067
24.17 Provision of Information……Page 1068
24.19 Evacuation and Shelter……Page 1069
24.20 Transport Emergency Planning……Page 1070
24.23 Emergency Incidents……Page 1072
24.24 Emergency Aftermath……Page 1074
25.1 Human Factors……Page 1078
25.2 Occupational Health……Page 1080
25.3 Occupational Hygiene……Page 1081
25.4 COSHH Regulations 1988……Page 1085
25.5 Dust Hazards……Page 1089
25.6 Asbestos Dust……Page 1090
25.7 Ventilation……Page 1091
25.9 Physico-Chemcal Hazards……Page 1095
25.10 Ionizing Radiation Hazards……Page 1097
25.11 Non-ionizing Radiation Hazards……Page 1098
25.12 Machinery Hazards……Page 1099
25.14 Other Activities and Hazards……Page 1101
25.15 Personal Protective Equipment……Page 1104
25.16 Respiratory Protective Equipment……Page 1105
25.17 Rescue and First Aid……Page 1108
25.18 Notation……Page 1109
26.2 Definition of Accidents……Page 1112
26.5 Accident Models……Page 1113
26.6 Accident Proneness……Page 1115
26.8 Human Error……Page 1116
26.9 Social Factors……Page 1117
26.12 Major Hazards……Page 1118
27.2 Incident Reporting……Page 1122
27.4 Accident Models……Page 1123
27.5 Accident Investigation……Page 1124
27.6 Fire Investigation……Page 1129
27.7 Explosion Investigation……Page 1131
27.8 Accident Investigation: CCPS Guidelines……Page 1133
27.9 Public Accident Inquiries……Page 1134
27.10 Organizational Memory……Page 1137
27.13 Accident Databases……Page 1138
27.14 Safety Performance Measurement……Page 1139
27.15 Safety Performance Monitoring……Page 1140
27.16 Near Miss Reporting……Page 1143
27.17 Education……Page 1145
27.18 Teaching Aids……Page 1147
27.19 Notation……Page 1148
28 Safety Systems……Page 1149
28.2 Safety Organization……Page 1150
28.4 Safety Representatives……Page 1153
28.5 Safety Committees……Page 1154
28.7 Safety Training……Page 1155
28.8 Safety Communication……Page 1156
28.9 Safety Auditing……Page 1157
28.10 Safety Rating……Page 1159
29 Computer Aids……Page 1160
29.1 Responsibility for Computer Aids……Page 1163
29.2 Chemical Engineering Software……Page 1164
29.3 Computer Aided Design and Engineering……Page 1165
29.4 Computer Aided Process Engineering……Page 1166
29.6 Pipework……Page 1167
29.7 Unit Operation and Equipment……Page 1168
29.9 Integrated Systems……Page 1169
29.10 Plant Layout……Page 1170
29.11 Process Dynamics and Control……Page 1176
29.12 Databases, Bibliographies and Indexes……Page 1177
29.16 Computational Fluid Dynamics……Page 1178
29.18 Reliability Engineering and Fault Trees……Page 1179
29.19 Escalation and Event Trees……Page 1181
29.21 Emission……Page 1182
29.22 Gas Dispersion……Page 1183
29.23 Hazard Models……Page 1185
29.24 Hazard Model Systems……Page 1187
29.25 Hazard Assessment Systems……Page 1188
29.30 Offshore……Page 1189
29.31 Nuclear Industry……Page 1190
30 Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems……Page 1191
30.1 Knowledge Representation……Page 1197
30.3 Propositional Logic……Page 1198
30.5 Non-deductive Interference……Page 1200
30.7 Non-classical Logics……Page 1201
30.8 Uncertainty and Inconsistency……Page 1202
30.9 Probabilistic Reasoning……Page 1204
30.10 Fuzzy Logic……Page 1205
30.11 Programming Languages……Page 1206
30.12 Structured Knowledge……Page 1208
30.13 Search……Page 1210
30.14 Matching and Pattern Recognition……Page 1213
30.15 Problem-solving and Games……Page 1214
30.17 Natural Language……Page 1215
30.18 Planning……Page 1216
30.19 Learning……Page 1220
30.20 Inductive Learning……Page 1221
30.22 Graphs, Trees and Networks……Page 1223
30.24 Expert Systems……Page 1226
30.25 Expert Systems: Some Systems and Tools……Page 1230
30.26 Qualitative Modelling……Page 1233
30.27 Engineering Design……Page 1236
30.28 Process Applications……Page 1237
30.29 Project Aids……Page 1238
30.31 DESIGN-KIT……Page 1241
30.32 Process Synthesis……Page 1242
30.33 Plant Design: Synthesis……Page 1243
30.34 Plant Design: Analysis……Page 1251
30.35 Expert Systems: Some Process Systems……Page 1252
30.36 Fault Propagation……Page 1253
30.37 Hazard Identification……Page 1258
30.38 Hazard Identification: HAZID……Page 1260
30.39 Hazard Identification: Enhancements……Page 1262
30.41 Fault Tree Synthesis……Page 1272
30.42 Fault Tree Synthesis: FAULTFINDER……Page 1274
30.43 Operating Procedure Synthesis……Page 1280
30.45 Fault Administration……Page 1290
30.46 Malfunction Detection……Page 1297
30.47 Notation……Page 1302